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HONEY 

PLANTS 


FRANK  C.  PEIiLETT 


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AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


American  Honey  Plants 


Together  With  Those  Which  Are  of  Special 
Value  to  the  Beekeeper  as  Sources  of  Pollen 


BY  FRANK  C.  PELLETT 

Author  Beginner's  Bee  Book,  Productive  Beekeeping, 
Practical  Queen  Rearing,  Etc. 


155  Illustrations 


1920 
AMERICAN  BEE  JOURNAL 

Hamilton.  Illinois 


copyright,  ivzti. 
By  Frank  C.  Pellelt 
All  Rights  Reserved 


N.C.S«a*e 


•"""Si*** 


To    my    indulgent    parents, 

who  early  encouraged  me 

in  my  passion  for  the  study 

of  Nature,  'this  book  is  affectionately 

dedicated. 


■':  i  60 1 


FOREWORD 

In  the  first  volume  of  American  Bee  Journal,  published  in  1861,  appears 
a  plea  for  the  publication  of  a  volume  devoted  to  the  honey  flora  of 
America.  In  numerous  instances  since  that  time,  writers  have  mentioned 
the  great  need  of  a  work  of  this  kind.  In  common  with  other  students  of 
beekeeping,  the  author  came  to  feel  this  lack  in  our  beekeeping  literature. 
This  book  is  an  attempt  to  fill  that  need.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  the  first 
work  on  this  great  subject  will  overlook  many  things  which  should  have 
been  included  and  that  numerous  errors  should  creep  in.  In  an  attempt  to 
gather  the  desired  material,  the  author  has  visited  the  important  beekeep- 
ing regions  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  California  and  from  Canada  to 
Florida  and  Texas.  Careful  notes  have  been  made  of  the  honey  plants 
of  each  section  as  indicated  by  the  many  beekeepers  with  whom  the 
author  has  come  in  contact.  To  this  multitude  of  beekeepers  who  have 
thus  assisted  by  furnishing  notes  of  this  kind  the  author  is  greatly  in- 
debted. 

The  literature  of  beekeeping  has  been  carefully  examined  for  refer- 
ences to  honey  plants,  and  hundreds  of  quotations  appear  in  the  text. 
The  few  bulletins  which  have  appeared  on  the  subject  have  been  quoted 
freely,  as  well  as  similar  material  appearing  in  the  bee  magazines 

The  illustrations  are  for  the  most  part  from  the  author's  original 
photographs,  although  a  number  have  been  borrowed  from  the  American 
Bee  Journal,  which  appeared  in  that  publication,  from  John  H.  Lovell, 
Homer  Mathewson,  J.  M.  Buchanan,  M.  C.  Richter,  C.  D.  Stuart,  Florida 
Photographic  Concern,  Wesley  Foster,  W.  A.  Pryal,  and  some  others,  the 
identity  of  the  originator  of  which  are   lost. 

Since  most  of  the  readers  of  this  book  will  be  men  who  are  not  accus- 
nomed  to  botanical  classification,  it  has  been  thought  best  to  treat  each 
plant  under  the  name  by  which  it  is  most  widely  known,  giving  other 
names  as  cross  references,  and  to  treat  all  in  alphabetical  order.  Numer- 
ous related  subjects  which  seemed  to  have  a  place  in  a  book  of  this  kind, 
such  as  nectar  and  nectar  secretion,  poisonous  honey,  propolis,  pollina- 
tion, weather  and  honey  production,  etc.,  have  been  likewise  included  in 
proper  alphabetical  order. 

No  one  is  likely  to  be  more  conscious  of  the  shortcomings  of  the 
volume  than  is  the  author.  As  it  is  his  hope  to  expand  the  scope  of  the 
work  in  a  later  edition,  he  will  be  grateful  for  notes  on  additions  and 
corrections  from  all  parts  of  America. 

Hamilton,  111.  FRANK  C.  PELLETT. 

November  18,  1919. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


The  late  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook  estimated  that  there  are  nearly  eighteen  hun- 
dred species  of  plants  on  which  bees  work  in  America.  Most  of  these  are 
minor  sources,  which  the  bees  visit  incidentally  for  the  minute  quantity 
of  nectar  that  may  be  available,  or  for  pollen.  There  are  some  plants  rich 
in  nectar  which  can  never  be  important  to  the  beekeeper  because  they 
are   not   sufficiently   plentiful. 

Honey  production,  as  a  business  enterprise,  is  dependent  upon  a  few 
species  which  yield  nectar  abundantly  and  which  are  sufficiently  common 
to  enable  the  bees  to  secure  honey  in  large  quantity.  In  order  to  make 
the  most  of  his  business,  the  beekeeper  should  have  a  thorough  knowledge 
or  the  honey  plants  in  all  the  country  surrounding  his  apiaries.  It  often 
happens  that  a  distance  of  but  a  few  miles  makes  a  great  difference  with 
the  available  honey  sources.  Many  a  man  by  moving  an  apiary  a  few 
miles  has  greatly  increased  the  yield.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  plant 
which  is  the  main  dependence  will  fail,  and  that  by  moving  to  some  other 
source,  a  crop  may  be  harvested.  To  know  fully  the  honey  plants  of  his 
region,  their  time  of  blooming  and  habit  of  nectar  secretion  under  his 
particular  conditions,  is  of  fundamental  importance  to  the  man  who  would 
succeed  as  a  beekeeper. 

In  many  places  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  single  plant  determines 
whether  or  not  beekeeping  is  worth  while.  Over  a  large  portion  of  the 
Middle  West,  the  beekeepers  depend  almost  entirely  upon  white  clover  for 
surplus,  and  in  seasons  when  this  plant  fails  they  get  no  honey  to  sell. 

Likewise,  in  many  localities  in  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  States,  when  alfalfa  fails  to  yield,  there  is  no  surplus  honey. 
Yet  in  all  these  sections,  beekeeping  would  be  impossible  if  there  were  no 
other  plants.  There  are  localities  where  tremendous  honeyflows  occur  for 
a  short  period  of  time,  where  beekeeping  is  not  practical  because  there  is 
insufficient  forage  to  support  the  bees  the  rest  of  the  year.  In  such  places 
beekeepers  often  take  advantage  of  the  flows  by  moving  the  bees  away  as 
soon  as  the  plants  cease  to  yield  nectar,  and  returning  them  the  following 
year  at  blooming  time.  This  applies  to  some  parts  of  the  valley  of  the 
Appalachicola  River  in  Florida.  While  the  flow  from  Tupelo  is  sometimes 
remarkable,  there  is  a  shortage  of  pollen  throughout  the  summer  months. 

The  ideal  situation  for  beekeeping  is  one  where  there  are  at  least 
three  plants  which  yield  surplus  honey  in  considerable  quantity,  and  which 
bloom  at  different  periods.  Beside  the  main  sources,  there  should  be  a 
great  variety  of  minor  plants  yielding  both  pollen  and  honey  throughout 
the  season  to  support  the  bees  between  the  main  flows.  In  such  a  situa- 
tion, there  is  seldom  an  entire  failure  of  the  honey  crop;  and,  in  good 
years,  the  beekeeper   fares   well,   indeed. 

There  are  many  localities  where  the  bees  suffer  seriously  for  lack  of 
pollen    at    some    seasons    of   the   year.     An    available    source    of    pollen    is 


8  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

second  only  in  importance  to  an  abundant  honeyflow.  This  being  the  case, 
the  plants  which  are  generally  regarded  as  valuable  for  pollen,  especially 
those  blooming  at  seasons  when  pollen  is  not  abundant  generally,  are 
included  in  this  book. 

HONEY  PLANT  REGIONS 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  outline  the  principal  regions  of 
the  United  States.  A  careful  examination  of  all  these  outlines  brings  out 
serious  discrepancies.  There  are  too  many  small  regions  within  larger 
ones  to  permit  of  anything  like  accuracy  with  the  present  data  and  the 
present  knowledge  of  the  honey  plants.  In  general,  white  clover  may  be 
said  to  be  the  principal  honey  plant  of  all  the  region  from  Nova  Scotia 
west  to  eastern  Dakota  and  south  to  Tennessee  and  Arkansas.  Yet 
within  that  large  area,  there  are  many  places  where  white  clover  is  un- 
important, and  where  other  plants  furnish  the  principal  surplus.  In  much 
of  Michigan  white  clover  is  of  first  importance,  yet  in  the  cut-over  dis- 
tricts of  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  raspberry,  fireweed  and  milkweed 
furnish  nearly  all  the  honey  that  goes  to  market.  It  is  good  clover  terri- 
tory, and  with  the  ultimate  development  of  the  region,  clover  will  pre- 
dominate. 

In  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  States,  alfalfa  is  the 
principal  source  of  surplus,  but  sweet  clover  is  rapidly  crowding  it  for 
first  place. 

Basswood  was  once  a  very  important  source  of  honey  over  all  the 
Northeastern  States.  The  cutting  of  the  basswood  forests  has  gradually 
reduced  the  basswood  area  until  there  are  now  few  localities,  in  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois  or  Iowa,  where  it  is  really  an  important  honey  source. 
In  parts  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and  Ontario,  basswood  is 
still  sufficiently  plentiful  to  yield  large  quantities  of  honey,  but  there  it 
ii;  being  rapidly  reduced. 

In  the  cotton  belt,  where  cotton  would  naturally  be  expected  to  be  the 
principal  source,  the  area  would  be  divided  into  many  small  regions.  Cot- 
ton may  yield  much  honey  in  a  locality  where  the  soil  is  heavy  and  rich, 
while  a  few  miles  distant,  where  soils  are  light  and  sandy,  there  is  little 
honey  from  cotton,  although  the  plant  is  just  as  commonly  cultivated.  In 
the  cotton  region  there  would  be  a  great  many  sub-divisions.  In  parts  of 
Texas,  mesquite  is  the  principal  source,  in  others  catsclaw  and  huajilla 
(wa-he-ya),  while  in  eastern  Texas  basswood  yields  heavily.  Buckwheat 
is  important  principally  in  the  region  about  the  Great  Lakes  and  south  in 
the  higher  elevations  to  Virginia  and  Tennessee.  Goldenrod  is  one  of  the 
most  important  sources  of  nectar  in  New  England,  while  it  is  seldom  of 
much   value   west  of  the   Mississippi   River,  although   growing  abundantly. 

In  California  and  Florida  there  are  several  entirely  different  regions 
within  the  State.  There  is  no  one  plant  of  major  importance  over  all 
parts  of  either  State.  A  large  amount  of  work  still  remains  to  be  done 
before  the  honey  resources  of  America  can  be  mapped  out  with  anything 
like  accuracy.     Changing  conditions  are  rapidly  removing  one   plant  and 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  9 

substituting  another  in  many  sections.  When  the  author  visited  west 
Texas  he  was  told  by  the  beekeepers  there  that  the  clearing  of  the  land 
and  planting  it  to  cultivated  crops  was  rapidly  curtailing  the  bee  range, 
as  no  cultivated  crops  being  planted  were  equal  to  the  desert  flora  which 
was  being  removed. 

In  other  sections,  the  planting  of  forage  crops  which  are  good  sources 
of  nectar,  like  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover,  is  greatly  increasing  the  available 
bee  pasturage.  In  parts  of  California,  the  extensive  growing  of  garden 
seeds  is  providing  pasture  sufficient  for  producing  surplus  honey  of  a  kind 
seldom  heard  of  in  the  markets  a  few  years  ago.  Parsnip  and  celery 
honey  are   examples. 

THE   MINOR   PLANTS 


Although  only  a  few  dozen  plants  are  important  sources  of  surplus 
honey,  there  are  hundreds  of  minor  plants  which  are  of  value  for  the  sup- 
port they  give  the  bees  when  no 
major  plant  is  in  bloom.  The  num- 
ber and  variety  of  these  plants 
will  largely  determine  the  value 
of  the  locality,  and  whether  it  will 
be  necessary  for  the  beekeeper  to 
resort  to  migratory  beekeeping  at 
times. 

Catnip  is  famous  as  a  bee 
plant,  yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  a 
single  pound  of  catnip  honey  was 
ever  stored  in  America,  unmixed 
with  honey  from  other  sources.  If 
catnip  could  be  grown  in  large 
fields  like  clover,  it  is  probable 
that  catnip  honey  would  appear 
in    the   markets. 

If  the  beekeeper  is  familiar 
with  the  minor  plants,  he  will 
often  be  able  to  locate  outyards 
where  the  bees  will  be  able  to 
gather  enough  nectar  from  such 
sources  to  keep  his  colonies  in  the 
best  possible  condition  for  the 
surplus  flows.  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  it  is  only  the  big  colonies 
which  produce  large  crops  of  surplus  honey.  A  little  nectar  coming  to 
the  hive  for  some  time  in  advance  of  the  main  flow,  is  the  best  possible 
stimulant  for  brood  rearing.  It  often  happens  that  bees  will  be  poorly 
prepared  for  the  harvest  in  one  yard,  while  others  only  two  or  three  miles 
distant  will  be  in  the  best  possible  condition,  because  of  the  presence  of 
some  minor  plants  not  within  reach  of  the  first. 


Blossoms     of    huisache     (Acacia    far 
nesiana.) 


1U 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


ACACIA. 

The  acacias  are  shrubs  or  small  trees  which  are  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  warmer  portions  of  the  world.  There  are  said  to  be  450 
species,  of  which  nearly  300  are  native  to  Australia  and  Polynesia.  We 
also    find   reference    to    them    in    India,   Africa    and    South    America.      The 


Fig.   2.     Acacia  melanoxylon. 

different  species  are  known  by  various  local  names.  In  Europe  some  are 
known  as  mimosa  trees.  As  sources  of  honey  they  are  important  in 
Texas,  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  California. 

The  sweet  acacia  (Acacia  farnesiana),  in  Texas  called  huisache,  is 
found  along  the  gulf  coast  in  Alabama  and  as  far  east  as  South  Carolina. 
In  Texas  the  huajilla  (Acacia  berlandiera),  is  an  important  source  of  nec- 
tar. In  fact,  according  to  the  Texas  bulletin  on  honey  plants,  it  is  the 
main  source  in  southwest  Texas.  It  grows  abundantly  on  dry  and  rocky 
hills  which  often  are  not  suited  to  growing  agricultural  crops.  The  honey 
is  white  and  of  fine  quality. 

The  catsclaw,  or  paradise  flower  (Acacia  greggii),  is  another  very  im- 
portant   source   of   honey   in    the    southwest.     It     is     one    of    the    principal 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


sources  of  dependence  in  Texas,  where  it  is  reported  as  yielding  in  April. 
Arizona  reports  a  later  yield,  blooming  here  in  May  and  June.  Like  the 
huajilla,  the  honey  is  light  colored  and  of  very  fine  quality. 


Golden   wattle    (At 


ifolia) 


Figure  4  shows  the  black  wattle  of  California  (A.  dscurrens  mollis), 
which  is  largely  grown  as  an  ornamental  in  the  gardens  and  along  the 
roadsides  of  that  State.  It  blooms  from  February  to  June  and  produces 
some  honey  and  an  abundance  of  pollen.  Fig.  3  is  the  Sydney  golden  wat- 
tle (Acacia  longifolia),  another  widely-grown  California  shrub.  A  third 
California  species,  A.  melanoxylon,  is  shown  at  Fig.  2. 


12 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


The  huisache  (A.  famesiana),  Fig.  1,  already  mentioned,  is  a  common 
plant   in   south  Texas,  from  San  Antonio  to  the  lower  Rio  Grande  valley. 


Fig.  4.     Acacia  or  Hack  wattle   (Acacia  decurrens  mollis). 

It   is  of   special   importance   for   early  pollen,  though   Scholl  reports   it   as 
yielding  honey  also. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  13 

The  huajilla  (pronounced  "wa-he-ya")  grows  abundantly  over  a  wide 
territory  in  southwest  Texas  and,  as  it  requires  but  a  small  amount  of 
moisture,  makes  beekeeping  profitable  where  it  would  otherwise  be  a 
precarious  business.  Large  quantities  of  white  honey  of  mild  flavor  and 
fine  quality  are  stored  from  this  source.  In  a  journey  of  several  hundred 
miles  among  the  beekeepers  of  Texas,  the  author  found  this  plant,  together 
with  catsclaw  and  mesquite,  to  be  the  principal  source  of  surplus  south 
and  west  of  San  Antonio.  Various  sources  were  reported,  but  in  nearly 
every  case  these  three  plants  were  mentioned  as  heading  the  list.  Huajilla 
ranks  high  in  both  quantity  and  quality  of  nectar  produced. 

The  catsclaw  (Acacia  greggii),  known  in  some  localities  as  paradise 
flower  or  devil's  claw,  is  a  low  spreading,  bushy  shrub  or  small  tree  with 
curved  thorns,  hence  the  name,  "catsclaw."  This  is  a  close  rival  of  huajilla 
for  first  place  as  the  source  of  white  honey  in  much  of  southwest  Texas 
The  far-famed  Uvalde  honey  is  largely  huajilla  and  catsclaw.  In  many 
places  the  yield  of  surplus  honey  is  being  reduced  through  the  clearing  of 
the  land  for  farming  purposes.  Both  these  plants  grow  in  very  dry  sec- 
tions, on  land  which  until  recently  was  thought  to  be  of  little  value  for 
any   purpose   without    irrigation. 

Scholl  lists  the  round-flowered  catsclaw  (Acacia  roemeriana  Schlect) 
as  a  heavy  yielder  of  honey  of  good  quality,  but  plants  are  not  abundant. 
He  also  lists  Acacia  amentacea  as  a  source  of  pollen  and  some  honey, 
but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  important. 

ACER,  see  Maple 
ADAM'S   NEEDLE,  see  Yucca. 
AESCULUS,  see  Buckeye. 
AGARITES,  see  Barberry. 
AGAVE,  see   Century   Plant. 

ALABAMA — Honey  Sources  of. 

There  is  a  large  district  in  Alabama  where  sweet  clover  is  the  princi- 
pal source  of  surplus  honey.  In  this  region  good  crops  are  the  rule,  since 
it  yields  from  early  June  till  late  in  August.  In  addition,  rattan,  tulip- 
poplar,  black  gum,  hawthorne,  field  peas,  privet,  locust,  redbud,  cotton,- 
bitterweed,  asters  and  occasionally  white  clover,  yield  honey.  There  is 
the  usual  spring  stimulation  from  fruit  blossoms  and  willows  in  Alabama 
and  a  large  number  of  minor  sources  which  add  something  to  the  total 
yield,  but  which  alone  are  unimportant. 


ALASKA — Honey   Sources   of. 

By  the  accounts  given  in  Bancroft's  History  of  Alaska  and  in  transla- 
tions made  for  me  by  Rev.  George  Kotteometinoff  from  the  records  of  the 
Orthodox  Russo-Greek  Church  at  Sitka,  the  honeybee  was  first  introduced 
into  Alaska  in  1809  by  a  monk  named  Cherepenin.  These  bees  came  from 
the  Department  of  Kazan,  in  Siberia,  and  were  brought  that  honey  might 


14 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


be  added  to  the  scanty  food  supply  of  the  pioneer  teachers  of  the  Faith 
as  well  as  to  supply  the  candles  for  the  church  services.  By  decree  of 
Church,  only  beeswax  candles  can  be  used,  and  it  is  recorded  that  at  Sitka 


Fig.   5.     A  group   of  Alaska   honey   plants. 


in  1816,  no  services  could  be  held  for  six  months  because  the  supply  of  wax 
ran  out.  As  early  as  1819  apiculture  was  taught  in  the  church  school  and 
was  continued  up  to  1894.  It  would  appear  that  the  bees  never  flourished 
and  seldom  swarmed.  There  are  a  number  of  records  of  new  importatjons 
to  take  the  place  of  dead  colonies.    Very  early  a  white  clover  was  intro- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  15 

duced  to  help  out  the  honey  supply.  About  1830  bees  were  taken  from 
Sitka  to  Fort  Ross  in  California.  As  late  as  1905  there  were  about  30 
colonies  at  the  Russian  school  at  Sitka.  These  bees  were  in  straw  skeps 
and  were  kept  on  shelves  under  the  eaves  of  the  house.  In  winter  they 
were  kept  within  the  same  projecting  eaves.  In  1906  the  Experiment  Farm 
at  Sitka  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  keep  bees  in  Langstroth  hives. 
It  is  not  probable  that  beekeeping  will  ever  be  a  commercial  project  in 
Alaska.  References  to  beekeeping  at  Sitka  by  Dr.  Sheldon  Jackson  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Report  on  Education  in  Alaska,  Bureau  of  Education. 
Prof.  C.  C.  Georgeson,  in  the  reports  on  work  done  at  the  Experiment 
Station  in  Alaska  also  mentions  beekeeping.  Bees  were  observed  collect- 
ing nectar  and  pollen  from  plants  given  below  during  the  years  1905  to  1912. 
It  should  be  observed  that  a  majority  of  these  plants  have  pendulous 
flowers.  In  a  climate  such  as  at  Sitka,  where  the  normal  precipitation  is 
120   inches,   only   pendulous    flowers    could  protect  the  nectar: 

Willow  (Salix  speciosa). 
Crab  Apple  (Pyrus  rivularis). 
Salmon    Berry   (Rubus    spectabilis). 
Salmon  Berry  (Rubus  nulkonus  noctino). 
Cloud   Berry   (Rubus   Chamaemorus). 
Nahgoon   Berry   (Rubus   stellatin). 
Wild  Red  Raspberry   (Rubus   strigosus). 
Blue   Berries   (Vaccinium  uliginosum). 
Blue    Berries    (Vaccinium   ovalifolium). 
Blue   Berries   (Vaccinium  vitis    Idaea). 
Seaside  Portulaca  (Claytonia  sp.) 
White  Clover  (Trifolium   sp.) 
Wild  Tansey  (Achillea  borealis). 
Yellow  Water  Lily  (Ny— .phaca  advena). 
Water  Smart   Weed   (Polygonum   sp.) 
Elder   (Sambucus   racemosa). 
Cow    Parsnip    (Heracleum    lanatum). 


-H.  B.   Park< 


ALBERTA— Honey  Sources  of. 


In  the  southern  part  of  the  province  alfalfa  is  of  first  importance. 
Fireweed,  white  clover  and  alsike  are  the  chief  sources  elsewhere.  Wil- 
lows and  maples  stimulate  early  brood  rearing  and  some  honey  is  gathered 
from  prairie  flowers. — F.  W.  L.  Sladen. 

ALDER  (Alnus). 

The  alders  are  a  group  of  shrubs  or  trees  common  from  New  England 
and  Canada  west  to  Michigan  and  south  to  Texas.  The  bark  is  sometimes 
used  for  tanning  and  as  a  dyestuff.  and  to  some  extent  in  medicine.  The 
blossoms  appear  early  in  spring,  and  are  the  source  of  an  abundant  supply 
of  pollen  at  a  season   when   it   is  often   much   needed  by  the   bees. 


16  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

ALFALFA  (Medicago  sativa). 

Alfalfa  is  the  most  important  honey  plant  west  of  the  Missouri  river. 
It  is  also  the  most  valuable  forage  plant  in  the  same  region.  Once  estab- 
lished, a  field  of  alfalfa  continues  to  return  valuable  crops  year  after  year. 


Fig.   6.     Pollen-bearing  blossoms  of  the  alder. 

From  two  to  five  cuttings  are  secured  each  season,  depending  upon  the 
available  moisture  and  the  length  of  the  growing  period.  It  thrives  best 
in  the  irrigated  regions  with  its  roots  in  the  rich  soil  supplied  with  abun- 
dant, but  not  excessive,  moisture.  It  is  an  old-world  plant  which  has  con- 
tributed much  to  the  prosperity  of  western  farmers  since  its  introduction 
to  this  country. 

The  honey  from  alfalfa  varies  in  color  and  quality  in  different  locali- 
ties. In  Colorado  and  Idaho  it  is  of  very  light  color  and  with  a  spicy,  mild 
flavor  of  excellent  quality.  In  the  Imperial  Valley  of  California  it  is  much 
darker  in  color  and  of  poorer  quality.  Alfalfa  honey  granulates  readily, 
but  is  generally  regarded  as  a  high  quality  of  honey.  The  tendency  to 
early  granulation  makes  it  more  desirable  to  market  in  the  extracted  state 
than  in  the  sections. 

The  yield  varies  greatly,  according  to  season,  but  the  heaviest  yields 
come  when  there  is  a  vigorous  growth  of  the  plant.  Where  grown  with- 
out irrigation  a  much  greater  variation  in  yield  can  be  expected.  In  Ne- 
braska and  Kansas,  alfalfa  often  yields  good  crops  of  nectar  without  irri- 
gation, while  east  of  the  Missouri  River  it  is  seldom  of  much  value  to  the 
beekeeper.     The  author  had  a  small  field  of  alfalfa  in  western  Iowa  for 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


17 


several  years.  Only  one  season  did  the  bees  pay  much  attention  to  it. 
That  season  was  very  wet  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer,  thus  promot- 
ing a  vigorous  plant  growth.  Later  the  weather  turned  very  hot  and  dry. 
Conditions  similar  to  those  of  the  irrigated  sections  of  the  west  were  ap- 
proximated. The  roots  of  the  plants  were  supplied  with  an  abundance  of 
moisture,  while  the  air  was  hot  and  dry.  Under  such  conditions  alfalfa 
is  at  its  best  as  a  honey  producer. 

Alfalfa  is  reported  as  the  source  of  considerable  surplus  honey  in 
northeastern  Louisiana,  which  is  the  farthest  east  of  any  locality  where  it 
is  important,  with  which  the  author  is  familiar.     While  it  is  largely  grown 


Fig.  7.  Blossoms  of  alfalfa  and  yellow  sweet  clover, 
as  a  field  crop  in  parts  of  Iowa,  Illinois,  New  York  and  other  eastern 
States,  beekeepers  all  report  but  little  honey  from  it.  It  seldom  yields 
to  any  extent  in  humid  climates.  Given  sufficient  moisture  at  the  roots, 
the  hotter  and  dryer  the  atmosphere,  the  better  seems  to  be  the  yield  of 
nectar.  The  conditions  which  most  favor  nectar  secretion  are  also  favor- 
able to  seed  production. 


18  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

Field  Culture 

Alfalfa  is  a  long-lived  plant  and  very  deep-rooted.  The  long  tap  root 
penetrates  deep  into  the  soil,  thus  securing  all  available  moisture  and 
making  the  plant  drought-resistant  when  once  well  established.  The  plant 
is  very  tender  when  young,  and  great  care  is  necessary  in  the  preparation 
of  the  soil  when  starting  a  new  planting  of  this  crop.  The  seed  bed  should 
be  thoroughly  stirred,  all  lumps  fully  pulverized,  and  the  surface  soil  as 
smooth  as  an  onion  bed.  It  is  important  that  the  ground  be  prepared 
some  time  in  advance  of  seeding  and  frequently  stirred  to  start  any  weed 
seeds  that  may  be  present,  and  destroy  them  before  the  alfalfa  is  sowed. 
On  old  land  it  is  advisable  to  prepare  the  seed  bed  in  the  spring  and  stir 
it  at   frequent  intervals  until  August  before   sowing  the  alfalfa   seed. 

Alfalfa  does  not  do  well  on  sour  land,  or  land  that  is  wet  or  weed- 
infested.  It  does  best  on  rich,  well  drained  soil,  well  supplied  with  lime. 
Lime  is  essential,  and  if  the  soil  is  lacking  in  lime  it  must  be  supplied. 

In  many  localities  it  is  the  practice  to  grow  a  crop  of  sweet  clover  in 
advance  of  seeding  to  alfalfa. 

From  seven  to  twenty  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre.  If  good 
seed  is  used  and  put  in  with  a  drill,  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  should  be  ample. 

In  cutting  alfalfa  it  is  important  that  some  care  be  used  to  select  the 
proper  time.  When  the  new  shoots  are  well  started  is  usually  regarded 
as  the  safest  time,  if  the  plant  is  cut  for  hay.  The  leaves  constitute  the 
greatest  portion  of  the  feeding  value,  and  much  care  is  necessary  in 
handling  the  crop  to  avoid   shattering. 

In  localities  where  the  plant  is  grown  for  seed,  a  much  longer  bloom- 
ing period  results  and  the  beekeeper  profits  accordingly.  Where  cut  for 
hay,  alfalfa  loses  much  of  its  possible  value  through  the  cutting  just  when 
it  is  reaching  its  period  of  greatest  nectar  secretion. 

Harry  K.  Hill,  of  Willows,  California,  states  that  he  zets  three  dis- 
tinct shades  of  pure  alfalfa  honey  in  the  same  year.  The  honey  from 
first  extracting  is  much  darker  than  later  extractings. — Western  Honey- 
bee, April,  1913. 

ALFILARIA,   see   Pin   Clover. 
ALGAROBA,  see   Mesquite. 
ALLIGATOR  PEAR,  see  Red  Bay. 
ALLIUM,  see   Onion 

ALMOND   (Prunus  amygdalus). 

The  cultivated  almond  is  closely  related  to  the  peach  and  is  native  to 
Southern  Europe,  where  it  has  been  grown  for  centuries  for  its  nuts. 

The  tree  is  extremely  early  in  its  blooming  period  and  more  tender 
than  the  peach.  It  is  grown  in  large  orchards  in  parts  of  California,  and 
to  some  extent  in  Arizona.  It  grows  on  higher  and  dryer  lands  than  any 
other  fruit  trees  in  California.    The  tree  will  not  thrive  on  wet  lands. 

Bees  gather  both  honey  and  pollen  from  the  flowers  and  in  the  almond 
belt  of  California  it  is  of  great  value  for  early  brood-rearing.     There   it 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


19 


blooms   in  February,  and  beekeepers   sometimes  move   their  bees   from  a 
distance  to  the  almond  orchards  to  build  them  up  for  the  orange  flow. 


ALSIKE  CLOVER   (Trifolium  hybridum).     Hybrid   or  Swedish  Clover. 

Alsike  clover  is  one  of  the  very  best  honey  plants  of  America.  The 
beekeeper  who  lives  within  reach  of  large  fields  of  this  crop  is  fortunate, 
for  there  is  no  better  honey,  and  under  favorable  conditions  the  crops 
harvested  from  alsike  are  such  as  to  give  little  ground  for  dissatisfaction. 
Some  beekeepers  have  estimated  that  alsike  will  produce  500  pounds  of 
honey  per  acre  in  a  good  season.— American  Bee  Journal,  page  409,  1886. 

Alsike  thrives  on  clay  soil,  or  lands  in- 
clined to  be  wet,  where  the  other  clovers  do 
not  succeed.  It  is  sown  very  generally  in  a 
meadow  mixture  with  timothy  or  red-top. 
In  localities  where  grown  for  seed  there  is  a 
long  period  of  bloom,  which  is  greatly  to  the 
advantage  of  the  beekeeper.  It  is  good  for 
either  pasture  or  hay,  and  although  by  itself 
alsike  does  not  yield  as  many  tons  of  hay  per 
acre  as  red  clover,  when  mixed  with  red 
clover  the  two  together  make  more  and  bet- 
ter hay  than  red  clover  does  alone. 

Alsike  is  intermediate  in  size  between 
white  and  red  clover.  The  blossom  looks  like 
that  of  white  clover,  except  it  has  a  pinkish 
tinge  of  color  not  found  in  the  white  clover. 
The  stem  is  upright  and  branched  and  on  land 
with  sufficient  moisture  reaches  a  height  of 
two  feet  or  more. 

While  alsike  will  grow  nearly  everywhere 
that   red   clover   will   grow,   it   thrives   best    in  Fig.  9.    Alsike  clover, 

the  northern  part  of  the  country.  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  On- 
tario and  New  York  all  report  alsike  as  especially  valuable  to  the  bee- 
keeper. 

The  honey  is  white  in  color,  mild  in  flavor  and  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  best  for  table  use.  At  times  the  yield  is  very  heavy.  In  American  Bee 
Journal,  Nov.  2,  1899,  are  given  several  instances  of  large  yields  from  this 
source.  In  one  case  a  single  colony  of  bees  gathered  72  pounds  in  four 
days,  or  18  pounds  per  day.  Another  report  was  of  251  pounds  in  21  days, 
or  25  pounds  per  day,  from  alsike. 

In  number  two  of  the  first  volume  of  the  "Review,"  Editor  Hutchin- 
son states  that  ten  colonies  of  bees  gathered  300  pounds  of  extracted  honey 
from  alsike,  with  only  two  acres  within  reach.  This,  of  course,  takes  no 
account  of  the  honey  consumed  by  the  bees,  but  indicates  that  the  yield 
is  good  for  the  acreage  within  reach.  In  the  following  number  of  the  same 
journal  an  Ontario  beekeeper  reports  that  he  had  not  known  a  failure 
from  alsike  in  eight  years. 

See  also  Clover. 


20 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


ALTHEA,    see    Hollyhock. 
ANDROMEDA. 

"Andromeda  (a  scraggy  shrub  of  the  heath  family)  blooms  in  the  cen- 
tral northwestern  part  of  Florida  for  about  four  weeks  in  March  and 
early  April;  yielding  but  little,  three  years  out  of  four.  The  honey,  too,  is 
reddish  yellow,  thick  and  pungent,  not  very  valuable  as  a  surplus  honey 
plant." — E.  G.  Baldwin,  Gleanings,  March  15,  1911. 

AMERICAN   ALOE,  see   Century   Plant. 
AMERICAN  CRAB  APPLE,  see  Crab  Apple. 
AMERICAN   IVY,  see  Virginia  Creeper. 
ANAQUA,   see    Knockaway. 
ANGLEPOD,  see   Bluevine. 

APPLE  (Malus). 

America's  best  and  most  widely  used  fruit  is  the  apple.     It  is  a  native 


Fig.   8.     Almond  orchard  in  bloom. 

of  Asia,  but  as  a  cultivated  fruit  is  grown  in  most  of  the  temperate  regions 
of  the  world.  Hundreds  of  varieties  have  been  developed  by  plant  breed- 
ers until  there  are  few  horticulturists  who  are  familiar  with  them  all.  They 
range  in  size  from  the  small  cultivated  crab-apples  not  more  than  an  inch 
in  diameter  to  the  big  Wolf  River,  often  five  or  more  inches  in  diameter. 
Some  varieties  are  hard  and  sour  and  suitable  for  little  else  than  making 
cider,  while  others  are  of  the  finest  quality. 

There  is  no  more  beautiful  sight  than  an  orchard  in  bloom  in  spring. 
The  blossoms  secrete  nectar  freely  and  in  favorable  weather  the  bees 
fairly  swarm  over  them.     The  honey  is  light  amber   in   color  and  of  good 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  21 

quality.  The  trees  bloom  so  early  that  it  is  of  greatest  value  to  stimulate 
spring  brood-rearing,  though  strong  colonies  easily  store  surplus  when  the 
weather  is  suitable  for  the  bees  to  fly  freely  during  the  period  of  bloom. 
Large  orchardists  often  offer  inducements  to  beekeepers  to  locate  near 
their  orchards  for  the  better  pollination  of  the  fruit  blossoms  which  re- 
sults from  the  presence  of  large  numbers  of  bees.  In  orchard  districts 
there  is  frequently  complaint  on  the  part  of  the  beekeepers  that  the  bees 
are  killed  by  the  application  of  poisonous  spray  while  the  trees  are  in 
bloom.  When  American  beekeepers  learn  to  winter  their  colonies  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  maintain  a  reasonable  strength  in  early  spring,  surplus 
honey  in  quantity  may  be  expected  from  the  orchard  districts  in  favorable 
seasons.  The  weather  is  often  too  wet  or  too  cold  for  the  bees  to  fly 
during  apple  blossom,  and  this  condition  the  apiarist  can  never  overcome. 

APOCYNUM,  see   Dogbane. 

APRICOT   (Prunus   armeniaca). 

The  apricot  is  a  well  known  cultivated  fruit,  somewhat  intermediate 
between  the  plum  and  peach.  It  blooms  very  early  in  spring  and  is  valu- 
able as  a  source  of  early  nectar  and  pollen.  It  is  grown  in  large  acreage 
in  some  portions  of  California,  where  it  is  regarded  as  valuable,  by  the 
beekeepers. 

ARBUTUS   (Epigaea   repens).     Trailing  Arbutus   or  Ground   Laurel. 

A  trailing  plant  with  evergreen  leaves.  The  rose  colored  flowers,  in 
small  clusters,  appear  in  early  spring.  They  are  fragrant  and  attractive  to 
the  bees.  There  is  an  occasional  report  to  the  effect  that  arbutus  is 
valuable  to  the  bees  as  a  source  of  early  nectar. 

ARCTOSTAPHYLOS,  see   Manzanita. 
ARIZONA   BUCKTHORN,  see  Gum   Elastic. 

ARIZONA— Honey  Sources  of. 

The  sources  of  our  honey  are  the  desert  flora  and  cultivated  crops, 
chiefly  alfalfa.  A  few  of  the  principal  producing  plants  and  their  seasons 
are  as   follows  :  Time  of  Blooming. 

Mesquite  (Prosopia  velutina)   April-July 

Screw  Bean  (Prosopis  pubescens) April-July 

Catsclaw   (Acacia   greggii) May-June 

Acacia  (Acacia  constricta) June 

Paloverde  (Parkinsonia  torreyana) May 

Desert  flora  (Miscellaneous) Depending  upon  rainfall 

Alfalfa  (Medicago  sativa) April-September 

The  wild  honey  plants,  because  of  grazing  animals  and  of  wood-cutters, 
have  greatly  decreased  within  recent  years.  The  area  in  alfalfa,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  constantly  increasing;  but  without  a  corresponding  increase 
in  honey-producing  power.     This  is  due  to  two  principal  causes:     Farmers 


22  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

are  now  cutting  alfalfa  for  hay  at  a  much  earlier  stage  in  its  growth  than 
formerly,  not  allowing  the  plant  to  come  into  full  bloom;  and  the  alfalfa 
butterfly  (Colias  eurytheme),  has  so  increased  in  numbers  since  1895,  that 
the  honeyflow,  which  used  to  continue  well  into  September,  is  now  cut 
short  in  July.  It  is  difficult  to  state  the  net  effect  of  these  changes  upon 
the  producing  power  of  the  country  as  a  whole;  but  in  Salt  River  Valley, 
under  present  conditions,  judging  from  the  shipments  made  during  the  last 
few  years,  our  present  irrigated  areas,  with  adjoining  desert  tracts,  are 
pretty  fully  stocked  with  bees.  Other  parts  of  the  territory  are  as  yet 
less  thoroughly  occupied.— R.  H.  Forbes,  University  of  Arizona.  "Timely 
Hints  for  Farmers,"  No.  46. 

ARKANSAS— Honey   Sources   of. 

White  clover  is  the  source  of  some  surplus  in  Arkansas,  although  it 
is  too  far  south  for  such  heavy  yields  as  occur  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
range  of  this  plant.  Sweet  clover  is  valuable  in  some  localities.  Tupelo, 
holly,  blackgum,  redbud,  locust,  tulip-poplar,  blackberry,  heartsease  and 
asters  are  the  important  sources  of  nectar.  Cotton  yields  in  some  sections 
of  the  State.  Fruit  bloom  is  valuable  in  spring,  and  where  colonies  are 
sufficiently  strong  some   surplus   may  be  expected. 

ARTICHOKE,  see  Sunflower. 
ASCLEPIAS,  see  Milkweed. 

ASPARAGUS. 

The  garden  asparagus  is  an  introduced  plant  widely  cultivated.  It  is 
very  attractive  to  the  bees  and  yields  pollen  plentifully.  As  a  source  of 
nectar  it  is  unimportant. 

ASH   (Fraxinus). 

There  are  more  than  twenty  species  of  ash  trees  common  to  various 
sections  of  America.  Some  are  well  known  timber  trees,  furnishing  lum- 
ber for  furniture  and  for  interior  finishing.  The  flowers  are  small,  incon- 
spicuous and  of  a  greenish  color.  Their  principal  value  to  the  beekeeper  is 
as  a  source  of  pollen,  although  Richter  lists  the  Oregon  ash  (Fraxinus 
oregona)  as  a  source  of  honey  also. 

ASH   LEAVED    MAPLE,  see   Box   Elder. 

ASPEN   (Populus).     Poplar  or  Cottonwood. 

There  are  several  species  of  poplars.  It  is  a  widely  distributed  group, 
some  species  being  found  in  most  all  sections  of  the  country.  They  are 
important  for  pollen,  though  some  honeydew  is  reported  from  them  also. 
They  thrive  especially  well  on  the  low  lands  along  streams  and  are  the 
most  common  trees  of  the  plains  region  from  Dakota  scuth  to  Oklahoma 
and  western  Texas.  This  group  should  not  be  confused  with  the  tulip- 
poplar,  which  see. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


23 


ASTER. 

The  aster  family  is  very  widely  distributed,  being  common  in  Europe, 
Asia  and  South  Africa,  as  well  as  America.    There  are  more  than  200  rec- 


Fig.  10.     White  field  aster   {Aster  vimineus). 


ognized  species,  of  which  at  least  125  are  found  in  the  United  States.  They 
are  extremely  common  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States,  although 
some  kinds  are  to  be  found  in  every  State  in  the  Union,  and  from  Canada 


t  C  State  College 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


tc  Mexico.  Every  American  beekeeper  may  be  sure  that  his  bees  are 
within  reach  of  at  least  one  species  of  aster,  and,  in  most  localities,  there 
are  several  species.     Some  species  produce   nectar  much   more   abundantly 


Fig.  11.     Purple  stemmed  aster  {Aster  puniccus). 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


25 


than  others,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  flow  from  all  kinds  is  more  or 
less  affected  by  soil  or  climatic  conditions.  So  few  beekeepers  differen- 
tiate between  the  species  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  secure  satisfactory 
information  regarding  their  comparative  value. 

Asters  are  very  seldom  mentioned  as  sources  of  nectar  in  the  south- 
west. Yet  twenty-one  species  are  listed  as  occurring  in  New  Mexico.  They 
seem  to  be  of  importance  principally  in  the  Eastern  States.  There  are 
numerous  reports  of  honey  from  asters  in  the  Southeastern  States  of 
Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  the  amount  of  surplus  increasing  north- 
ward. 

In  most  localities,  the  aster  honey  is  mixed  with  that  from  goldenrod, 
and  the  two  sources  are  usually 
spoken  of  together.  In  the  Septem- 
ber, 1917,  issue  of  the  American  Bee 
Journal,  appeared  an  extended  article 
on  goldenrods.  Like  the  asters,  they 
are  of  wide  distribution,  and,  like 
them,  they  seem  to  produce  nectar 
more  abundantly  in  the  moist  climate 
of  the  Eastern  States.  Both  bloom 
late  in  autumn,  the  crop  often  being 
cut   short   by  frost. 

According  to  Lovell,  the  asters 
are  never  common  enough  to  yield  a 
surplus  in  Maine,  and  the  honey  is 
always   mixed   with   goldenrod. 

As  to  the  quality  of  the  honey, 
there  are  many  conflicting  reports. 
Many  reports  are  to  the  effect  that 
the  quality  is  poor  and  not  suitable 
for     table     use.     The     fact     that     the 


Fig.   12.     Large- 


(Asti 


saved 
phyllus). 

honey  is  seldom  unmixed  with  that  of  other  fall  flowers,  may  be  respon- 
sible for  this  impression.  C.  P.  Dadant  had  one  year,  in  Illinois,  a  crop  of 
about  six  barrels  which  was  almost  pure  aster  honey.  This  honey  was 
secured  late  in  the  season,  after  other  plants  had  ceased  to  yield,  and  was 
almost  white,  and  of  very  fine  quality. 

There    are    numerous    reports    that    a    strong   odor    is    apparent    in    the 
apiary  when  asters  are  yielding.    We  quote  some  of  these  : 

"We  had  a  fall  flow  from  wild  asters  that  filled  the  hives  with 
honey  for  wintering,  and  gave  a  few  gallons  of  extracted  honey.  The 
honey  is  of  good  color  and  weight,  but  rather  strong  for  table  use.  It 
also  granulates  very  quickly.  When  the  bees  are  gathering  this  honey 
the  hives  give  off  a  rank  and  somewhat  sickening  odor,  which  can  be 
detected  for  quite  a  distance  away.  *  *  *  This  odor  disappears  as 
the  honey  ripens  and  the  flow  ceases,  but  the  strong  taste  never  en- 
tirely disappears.  It  is  as  strong  as  basswood  and  not  nearly  so  pleas- 
ant."— D.  E.  Andrews,  Bloomington,  Ind.,  page  98,  American  Bee  Jour- 
nal, 1907. 

"The  odor  is  not  unpleasant,  but  is  very  noticeable  when  the  bees 
are  bringing  much  of  it  in,  and  it  can  be  distinguished  a  considerable 


26 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


probably   accounts    for 
In    some   localitie: 


the    trouble   in 
asters   seem   to 


distance  from  the  hives.  The  amount  of  'smell'  is  such  a  good  criterion 
as  to  the  amount  of  honey  that  one  can  tell  the  quantity  he  is  getting 
from  these  indications  alone." — W.  H.  Reed,  Herrodsburg,  Ky.,  page 
228,  Gleanings,  1911. 

"In  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  in  Virginia,  where  I  lived  for  fourteen 
years,    there    were    many    acres    of    white    aster.      There    were    several 
years  when  the  bloom  was  in  sheets,  affording  a  good  yield  of  surplus. 
The  honey  was  very  light   amber,  of  fine  quality,  and  was  considered 
next  to  white  clover.  At  such  times  a  strong  odor,  which  was  distinctly 
sour,  could  be  noticed  " — Burdet  Hassett.    Page  257,  Gleanings,  1911. 
Much  has  been  written  concerning  the  danger  of  aster  honey  for  win- 
ter stores.     So  many  reports  of  disastrous  results  from  wintering  on  aster 
honey  have  been  published,  that  it  is  generally  understood  not  to  be  safe 
for  winter   stores.     However,   it   is   probable   that   the  trouble   comes   from 
honey  gathered  too  late   to  be  properly  ripened,  rather   than   because   the 
honey  is  of  poor  quality.     The  fact  that  the  honey  granulates  readily  also 

some   cases. 

be  a  dependable  source  of  surplus, 
while  in  others  they  yield  in  ap- 
preciable quantity  only  in  rare 
seasons.  Kentucky  seems  to  be 
in  the  heart  of  the  territory  where 
asters  are  important.  The  follow- 
ing are   typical  reports  : 

"We  have  never  failed  to  get 
a  good  crop  of  surplus  honey, 
and  plenty  left  for  the  bees, 
from  aster  for  more  than  twenty 
years,  till  this  year." — H.  C. 
Clemons,  Boyd,  Ky.  Page  90, 
Gleanings,    1909. 

"In  this  section  the  asters  are 
invaluable  as  fall  forage  for  bees. 
Let  the  season  be  cold  or  hot, 
we  are  certain  to  have  a  con- 
tinuous bloom  from  early  in 
September  until  a  really  hard 
frost  occurs.  My  Italian  bees 
have  never  failed  to  secure 
enough  honey  from  aster  to 
carry  them  through  the  winter, 
even  when  there  was  hardly  a 
pound  of  honey  in  the  hives  at 
the  end  of  August — Daniel  M. 
Worthington,  Elkridge,  Md., 
American  Bee  Journal,  page  125, 
1869. 

"Blue    aster     (Aster    azureus), 
Arrow-leaved   aster    (Aster  sagitti-        known    among    farmers    as    blue 
folius).  devil,  or   stickweed,  in   my  judg- 

ment, is  one  of  the  best  we  have,  from  the  fact  that  it  produces  honey 
in  the  fall  of  the  year.  It  is  usually  in  full  bloom  until  about  the  mid- 
dle of  October,  and  if  the  weather  is  warm  enough  for  the  bees  to  fly, 
they  get  plenty  of  honey  to  winter  on  from  this  flower." — West  Vir- 
ginia.    Page  869,  American  Bee  Journal,  1906. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


27 


It  is  probable  that  most  of  the  species  are  of  more  or  less  value  for 
honey  under  favorable  conditions.  The  writer  has  seen  bees  working  on 
arrow-leaf  (Aster  sagittifolius)  on  sunny  days  in  Cass  County,  Iowa,  the 
first  week  in  November,  after  everything  else  had  been  killed  by  frost. 
Figure  13  shows  this  species,  which  occurs  in  dry,  open  woods,  from  New 
Erunswick  to  Ontario,  and  west  to  Dakota,  and  from  New  York  to  the 
Ohio  valley,  and  along  the  mountains   to  Georgia   and  Alabama. 

Generally  speaking,  the  small-flowered  species  with  willow-shaped 
leaves,  are  best  for  honey.  Aster  tradescanti  is  probably  first  in  the  list 
as  a  source  of  surplus.  It  is  found  from  Ontario  to  Saskatchewan,  and 
throughout  the  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  south  to  the  Gulf  States. 
Aster  salicifolius  is  probably  one  of  the  best  in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  being 
common  on  low  ground. 

In  a  private  letter,  F.  W.  L.  Sladen  writes  concerning  the  asters  in 
Canada,  as  follows  : 

"I  have  this  year  had  confirmation  that  Aster  cordifolius  is  a  use- 
ful source  of  surplus  honey  in  favorable  seasons   in  the  Gatineau  val- 
ley in  September.     During  a  period  of  very  fine  weather  between  Sep- 
tember 11   and  22,  a  crop  of   12,000  pounds   of  honey,  principally   from 
this  source,  and  from  the  late  flowering  species  of  goldenrod,  was  ob- 
tained by  Joseph   Martineau,  at   Montcerf,  Quebec,   from  300  colonies. 
The  honey  was  light  amber  color, 
and  a  pleasant  flavor,  and  not  un- 
wholesome     for     wintering,      not 
granulating   in    the    combs.      (See 
Experimental  Farms  report   1914- 
15,    page    996).       Other     valuable 
species    of    aster    in    Canada    for 
honey   production     are    A.   lateri- 
florus  (Maritime  provinces  to  On- 
tario) ;    Aster    umbellatus     (Mari- 
time  provinces   to  Eastern   Mani- 
toba), and  Aster  puniceus,  Fig.   11 
(Maritime  provinces  to  Ontario)." 
—Ottawa,  October  2,  1917. 
Aster  puniceus,  the  purple-stemmed 
aster,    Fig.    11,    is    found    from    Nova 
Scotia   to   the   Rocky   Mountains    and 
south    to    Northern    Alabama.      It    is 
one    of    the    most    attractive    of    the 
asters,   growing   on   wet   land   and    in 
the  borders  of  swamps.  Lovell  writes 
that   in   Maine  he  has   seen   the   bees 
on   this   species   in  large  numbers   on 
September   17. 

The    white    field    aster,    or    frost 

.      .  v      „.         ,„      .       F.g.   14.     Swamp  aster   (Aster  acuminatus). 

flower    (Aster    vimineus),    Fig.    10,    is 

common  from  Eastern  Canada  to  Minnesota,  and  south  to  Arkansas  and 
Florida.  It  grows  in  dry,  open  fields,  along  roadsides,  and  in  waste  places. 
It  is  a  late  bloomer,  belonging  to  the  group  of  field  asters  which  are  im- 
portant for  nectar.     Some  other  species,  however,  yield  more  freely. 


28  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

The  swamp  aster  (Aster  acuminatus)  occurs  on  wet  land,  but  as  far  as 
available   information   goes   is   not    valuable   for   honey. 

The  large-leaved  Aster  macrophyllus,  Fig.  12,  is  a  northern  species, 
found  in  open  woodlands.  Graenicher  observed  ninety-five  species  of  in- 
sects on  the  flowers  of  this  species  in  Wisconsin,  which  indicates  nectar 
in   abundance  in  that  State. 

Several  other  species  are  known  to  produce  nectar  freely,  A.  multi- 
florus,  A.  lateriflorus,  A.  dumosus,  A.  paniculatus  and  A.  vimineus  being  re- 
ported from  various  localities.  A.  ericoides  is  reported  as  valuable  in 
Missouri. 

"There  is  an  abundance  of  Aster  ericoides  now  in  full  bloom.     The 

bees  are  working  on  it  more  vigorously  than  they  have  on  white  clover 

or  any  other  bloom." — George  E.  Wilkins,  Wright  County,   Mo.     Page 

699,  American   Bee  Journal,  1904. 

So  far,  we  have  been  unable  to  find  any  records  of  surplus  honey  from 
asters  west   of   the   Missouri   River. 

ASTRAGALUS,  see  Loco  Weed. 

AZALEA   (Rhododendron). 

The  azaleas  are  closely  related  to  the  mountain  laurel  and  are  like- 
wise sometimes  reported  as  poisonous.  (See  Laurel;  also  Poisonous 
Honey).  The  flame-colored  azalea  is  common  in  the  mountains  of  the 
Eastern  States  from  Pennsylvania  to  Georgia.  It  has  a  profusion  of 
showy,  flame-colored  blossoms  coming  just  when  the  leaves  appear.  Prob- 
ably several  of  the  group  yield  nectar  in  quantity  to  be  important  wherever 
they  are  sufficiently  plentiful. 


B 


BALLOON   VINE    (Cardiospermum   halicacabum). 

The  balloon  vine  is  a  herbaceous  climber  with  alternate  leaves  and 
clusters  of  small  white  flowers,  followed  by  a  three-celled  inflated  pod. 
This  species  is  common  along  streams  in  south  Texas.  C.  molle,  a  Mexi- 
can species,  is  also  found  to  some  extent  in  the  mountains  west  of  the 
Pecos  River,  according  to  Coulter. 

Balloon  vine  is  reported  as  the  source  of  considerable  honey  in  Texas. 
Scholl  lists  it  is  a  fair  yielder,  but  plants  not  abundant.  Other  reports  in- 
dicate that  it  is  the  source  of  considerable  surplus  along  the  Gulf  Coast 
of  that  State. 

BALSAM  APPLE,  see    Wild   Cucumber. 

BANANA   (Musa   sapientum). 

Since  the  banana  plant  is  little  grown  in  the  United  States,  it  is  sel- 
dom mentioned  as  a  honey  plant,  yet  it  secretes  nectar  very  abundantly, 
and  in  countries  where  bananas  are  grown  on  a  large  scale  it  must  be  im- 
portant to  the  beekeeper.  We  are  showing  herewith  two  illustrations,  one 
of  the  plant  in  fruit  and  one  showing  the  opening  of  the  bloom. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


29 


Fig.   15.     Blossoms  of  the  banana. 


The  following  description  of  the  possibilities  of  this  plant  is  reprinted 
from  page  83  of  the  American  Bee  Journal  for  1880,  and  was  written  by  a 
correspondent   in   Clifton   Springs,  Florida  : 

"Recently  noticing  bees  working  upon  blossoms,  I  concluded  to  ex- 
amine them.  To  my  surprise,  I  found  that  each  blossom  had  a  sack  on 
its  under  side,  which  contained  several  drops  of  nectar  of  the  consist- 
ency and  sweetness  of  thin  syrup.  This  sack  gradually  opens,  allowing 
the  contents  to  escape,  unless  appropriated  by  some  insect.  The  blossom 
hangs  in  a  position  that  rain  cannot  enter  to  dilute  or  wash  out  the 
nectar.  Procuring  a  teaspoon,  I  emptied  into  it  the  contents  of  a  dozen 
blossoms,  which  filled  it  full.  Each  stalk,  on  good  land,  will  produce 
a  head  having  a  hundred  hands  or  divisions  of  blossoms,  and  each  hand 
averages  six  blossoms,  giving  600  blossoms  to  "the  stalk.  Estimating 
100  teaspoonfuls  to  the  pint  (88  of  the  one  used  filled  a  pint  measure) 
we  have  50  spoonfuls,  or  half  a  pint  to  the  stalk.  Planted  in  checks 
8x8  feet,  there  will  be  680  plants  to  the  acre,  yielding,  according  to  the 
above  estimate.  42 '  _.  gallons  of  nectar.  But  usually  more  than  one 
stalk  in  a  hill  blossoms  and  matures  fruit  annually.  The  blossoms 
used  were  below  those  that  produce  fruit,  which  later,  I  am  told,  are 
much  richer  in  honey. 

"The  first  blossoms  which  open  mature  fruit.     These  vary  in  num- . 
ber  from  25  to  100,  according  to  quality  of  land,  cultivation,  etc.    They 


30 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Fig. 


sell  here  at  from  \)A  to  2  cents  per  finger  or  pod.  Estimating  fruit  at 
25  fingers  per  bunch  and  the  bunches  at  25  cents  each — which,  you  see, 
is  a  low  estimate  for  both,  the  result  will  be  a  barrel  of  nectar,  or  $170 
worth  of  fruit  per  acre.  How  does  this  showing  compare  with  other 
cultivated  plants  as  combined  honey  and  money  crop?" 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Fig.    17.     Triple-leaved  barberry,   or  agarita. 

BARBERRY  (Berberis). 

The  common  barberry,  introduced  from  Europe,  has  become  natural- 
ized in  the  Northern  States  and  occurs  in  thickets  and  woodlands  from  the 
Atlantic  Coast  to  Iowa  and  southward.  It  blooms  in  May  and  June  and 
is  well  known  as  an  attractive  plant  to  the  bees,  though  seldom  sufficiently 
abundant  to  be  important.     It  is  much  cultivated  for  ornament. 

In  Texas,  the  triple-leaved  barberry  (Berberis  trifoliata)  is  known  as 
agarites,  the  Mexican  name,  and  as  wild  currant.  It  is  common  over  a 
large  part  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  State  and  is  an  important  source 
of  early  nectar.  It  is  a  shrub  4  to  6  feet  high,  with  stiff  leaves  and  bright 
yellow  flowers  that  grow  in  dense  clusters  along  the  stem.  The  red  berries 
ripen  in  May  and  are  often  called  currants.  They  are  used  for  jelly  or 
sauce,  as  well  as  for  barberry  wine.  The  plants  are  to  be  found  in  thickets, 
ir:  open  woodlands  and  along  roadsides,  in  fence  corners  and  other  waste 
places  where  the  seeds  have  been  scattered  by  birds. 

"As  a  honey  plant  it  is  one  of  much  value  to  me.  It  blooms  here 
early  in  February,  and  the  bloom  continues  for  several  weeks,  some 
bushes  blooming  later  than  others.  The  pollen  yield  is  abundant, 
bright  yellow  in  color.  It  is  the  second  bloomer  of  the  year  on  my 
list  of  Texas  honey  plants,  coming  after  mistletoe  and  before  our  main 
fruit  bloom." — Louis  Sc'holl,  Gleanings,  Feb.,  1907. 

Richter  reports  the  California  barberry  (Berberis  pinnata)  yields  sur- 
plus in  Monterey  County  after  manzanita  has  bloomed.  The  honey  is 
amber  in  color.  The  plant  is  rather  common  from  Berkely  Hills  south  to 
Monterey,  Mooning  in  March  and  April,  according  to  Jepson.  (See  also 
Oregon  grape). 


32 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Fig,    IS.      Basswood  tree  in  bloom. 

BARNABY'S  THISTLE,  see  Star  Thistle. 

BASIL   or    MOUNTAIN    MINT    (Pycananthemum    virginianum). 

Basil  is  common  from  New  England  to  the  Missouri  River  and  south- 
ward. There  are  numerous  reports  from  beekeepers  to  the  effect  that  bees 
work  upon  it  very  eagerly  from  morning  till  night.  It  is  probably  nowhere 
of  much  importance,  'though  it  would  be  if  sufficiently  common. 


BASSWOOD   (Tilia  americana). 

The  basswood,  also  known  as  linden,  whitewood,  and  sometimes  as 
limetree,  is  one  of  the  best  known  sources  of  honey  in  the  Eastern  States. 
There  are  other  species  closely  related  which  also  produce  nectar,  and 
which,  perhaps,  would  not  be  distinguished  by  the  casual  observer.  The 
natural  ringe  of  the  basswood  is  from  Canada  to  Florida  and  west  to  Ne- 
braska and  Texas.  It  is  also  grown  as  a  shade  tree  in  other  Western  States 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS  33 

and  is  mentioned  by  Richter  in  the  bulletin  on  "Honey  Plants  of  Califor- 
nia," as  an  introduced  species  of  value.  Fig.  18  shows  the  trees  in  bloom, 
and  Fig.  19  a  close  view  of  the  blossom  and  leaf. 


Fig.   19.      Blossom  and  leaf  of  the  basswood. 

The  tree  thrives  on  rich  lands,  and  in  the  cooler  regions  of  the  coun- 
try reaches  a  large  size.  The  wood  is  soft  and  white  and  much  in  demand 
for  making  sections,  separators  and  other  bee  supplies  requiring  a  soft 
wood  cut  in  thin  sheets.  For  such  purposes  basswood  has  no  superior. 
The  wood  is  also  sought  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  packing 
boxes,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  paper  making. 

The  blooming  period  is  short,  seldom  yielding  to  exceed  ten  days  or 
two  weeks,  and  often  for  a  much  shorter  period.  The  honeyflows  from 
baswood  are  irregular  and  only  to  be  depended  upon  about  two  or  three 
years  out  of  every  five.  A  heavy  flow  from  this  source  occurs  only  occa- 
sionally, but  when  it  does  come  it  is  worth  waiting  for,  for  enormous  yields 
are  sometimes  secured.  The  honey  is  white  in  color,  with  rather  a  strong 
flavor,  but  is  usually  regarded  as  high  quality.  Good  basswood  locations 
are  no  longer  plentiful,  as  the  cutting  of  the  forests  over  the  entire  coun- 
try has  resulted  in  a  large  reduction  of  this  along  with  other  trees. 

The  European  linden  (Tilia  europaea)  has  been  planted  in  many  places 
and,  according  to  Sladen,  is  the  source  of  surplus  honey  at  Charlottetown, 
Prince   Edward   Island, 


34  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

BASTARD-PENNYROYAL,   see   Blue   Curls. 
BATCHELOR'S  BUTTON,  see  Centaurea. 
BAY,  see  Magnolia. 

BEAN    (Phaseolus). 

There  are  two  varieties  of  the  garden  bean  which  are  the  source  of 
nectar  in  quantity.  Surplus  honey  from  beans  is  seldom  reported  except 
in  Southern  California.  Ventura  County  is  said  to  produce  as  high  as  72 
per  cent  of  the  lima  beans  raised  in  the  entire  United  States;  800,000 
sacks  is  the  reported  output  for  1910.  The  honey  from  lima  beans  is 
almost  water  white  in  color  and  of  fine  flavor,  according  to  M.  H.  Men- 
dleson,  of  Ventura,  California,  who  has  produced  many  tons  of  this  honey. 
The  black-eyed  beans  yield  a  dark  amber  honey,  but  of  good  quality.  A 
peculiarity  of  honey  from  lima  beans  is  that  it  will  sometimes  sweat  and 
ferment  when  left  too  long  on  the  hives  of  weak  colonies,  near  the  coast. 
This,  according  to  Mendleson,  seldom  happens  with  strong  colonies,  nor 
does  it  happen  in  any  case  in  the  interior.  Honey  from  beans  granulates 
very  readily. 

The  honeyflow  from  beans  is  regarded  as  very  dependable.  Occa- 
sionally the  blossoms  are  blasted  by  hot  east  winds,  but  not  frequently. 
In  Ventura  County  the  average  from  this  source  is  reported  as  50  pounds 
per  colony  per  year,  with  as  high  as  140  pounds  in  an  exceptional  season. 
The  beans  bloom  through  a  long  season,  beginning  in  July  and  continuing 
till  September,  with  the  principal  crop  of  nectar  harvested  in  July.  The 
bloom  is  prolonged  by  irrigation. 

The  principal  counties  of  California  where  beans  are  important  are: 
Ventura,  Orange,  Santa  Barbara,  Los  Angeles  and  San  Diego. 

BEARBERRY,  see  Manzanita. 
BEAVER  TREE,  see   Magnolia. 

BEE  BALM  (Melissa  officinalis). 

A  sweet  perennial  herb,  cultivated  in  gardens,  from  Southern  Europe 
and  North  Africa.  Sometimes  escaped;  flowers  yellow  or  whitish,  several 
in  each  auxiliary  cluster.  Plant  erect  and  branching,  with  broad  opposite 
leaves.  Attractive  to  the  bees,  but  not  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  im- 
portant. 

BEECH   (Fagus  grandifolia). 

The  beech  is  a  large  tree  common  to  Eastern  America.  It  is  known 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  Ontario  and  southward,  sometimes  in  extensive  for- 
ests. Its  principal  value  to  the  beekeeper  is  as  a  source  of  pollen,  though 
lioneydew  is  sometimes   secured  from  the   leaves. 

BEEWEED,  see   Rocky   Mountain  Bee  Plant. 

BEGCAH  TIC!',  sec  Spanish  Needle. 

BINDWEED  (Polygonum  convolvulus). 

The  black  bindweed  is  a  common  weed  throughout  the  Eastern  States. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


35 


It   is   of   European   origin,   introduced   into   this    country.     It   belongs   to   a 

family  of  plants  which  produce 
honey  in  quantity,  but,  is  itself,  of 
little  value.  The  first  indication 
that  reached  the  author  that  this 
plant  was  sometimes  of  value  to 
the  bees,  was  the  receipt  of  a 
specimen,  by  mail,  with  the  in- 
formation that  the  bees  were 
working  upon  it.  Careful  watch 
was  then  kept  for  several  years, 
before  they  were  seen  to  seek  it  in 
his  locality.  Since  that  time  there 
have  been  a  few  occasions  when 
the  bees  have  sought  it  freely  and 
when  it  seemed  to  yield  some  nec- 
tar. It  is  doubtful  whether  it  is 
ever  of  much  importance  as  a 
source    of   honey. 

The  seed  has  been  widely  dis- 
tributed with  grain  seeds  and  is 
very  troublesome  in  fields  of  small 
grain.  The  vine  closely  resembles 
the  wild  morning  glory,  to  the  cas- 
ual observer,  but  the  blossom  is 
small  and  inconspicuous,  followed 
with  a  seed  somewhat  like  buck- 
wheat, hence  it  is  often  called 
wild   buckwheat. 

BIRCH     (Betula). 

There  are  several  species  of 
birch  trees  and  shrubs  common  to 
Eastern  America.  They  are  partial  to  low,  rich  woodlands,  and  some  oc- 
cur in  the  far  north.     In  some  localities  they  are  valuable  for  pollen. 


20.     The    Black 


Ivveed    is   a    common 


BITTERSWEET    (Celastrus    scandens).      Waxwork,    or    Climbi 


itter- 


sweet 


sweet. 

A  well-known  climbing  shrub  common  in  woodlands.  The  orange- 
colored  pods  displaying  the  scarlet  covered  seeds  are  often  gathered  for 
winter  bouquets.  The  flowers  are  small  and  greenish  in  raceme-like  clus- 
ters at   the  termination  of  the  branches. 

"The  bees  work  freely  on  bittersweet."— Miss  Mitchell,  Keokuk,  Iowa. 


BITTERWEED  (Helenium  tenuifolium). 

The    author's    first    experience    with    bitterweed    honey    was    in    south 
Missouri  in  1904  or  1905.     There  had  been  a  good  flow  from  white  clover, 


36  AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 

followed  by  a  dearth  for  a  time,  and  the  unfinished  sections  were  filled  out 
with    bitterweed    honey.      The    sections    looked    very    nice    and    a    northern 


Fig.  21.      Honey   from  bitterweed   is  unfit   for  table  use. 

beekeeper  who  had  recently  settled  near  the  town  of  Salem,  innocently 
sold  his  honey  to  the  townspeople.  The  next  time  he  came  to  town  there 
were  numerous  persons  looking  for  him,  and  lie  found  it  necessary  to 
take  back  most  of  the  honey  he  had  marketed  on  his  previous  visit.  The 
honey  from  this  source  is  so  bitter  that  a  very  little  of  it  will  spoil  a  fine 
crop  of  the  best  white  honey.  A  few  cells  are  sufficient  to  make  a  whole 
section    absolutely   unpalatable. 

On  a  visit  to  Tennessee  the  author  was  very  much  interested  in  this 
plant,  which  grows  freely  along  roadsides,  in  barnyards  and  similar  places, 
much  as  dogfennel  or  mayweed  does  in  the  Northern  States.  The  range 
of  the  plant  is  given  as  from  Arkansas  and  Texas  to  North  Carolina.  It 
probably  does  not  appear  to  any  extent  north  of  Tennessee. 
Chas.  Mohr  says  of  it  (Plant  Life  of  Alabama,  page  54)  : 

"The  bitterweed,  originally  from  the  sunny  plains  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  south  of  the  Arkansas  Valley,  was  first  observed  in  Mo- 
bile  in   1866.     It  has   spread  along  the   embankments   of   the   railroads 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS  37 

to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio  River,  literally  covering  in  many  places 
the  waste  and  uncultivated  grounds,  and  reaching  out  along  byroads 
and  borders  of  fields  and  woodlands.  It  its  northward  spread  it  has 
largely  taken  the  place  of  the  mayweed  (Anthemis  cotula),  a  European 
weed  of  early  introduction." 

Regarding  honey  from  this  source  J.  J.  Wilder  says  (American  Bee 
Journal,  Vol.  54,  page  410): 

"It  is  truly  a  nectar-laden  plant.  Though  it  does  not  grow  in  great 
fields  as  yet,  bees  will  store  from  30  to  35  pounds  of  surplus  from  it. 
Its  flowers  are  of  a  deep  yellow;  the  honey,  light  yellow,  heavy  body, 
soon  granulates  when  extracted.  It  is  bitter;  in  fact  it  is  about  as 
offensive  to  the  palate  as  quinine.  In  most  sections  of  the  South  the 
cotton  plant  begins  yielding  two  or  three  weeks  before  the  bitter- 
weed,  and  if  it  were  not  for  the  well-established  fact  that  bees  do  not 
desert  a  honey  plant  for  another  as  long  as  it  yields  well,  nearly  all 
the  summer  and  fall  honey  would  be  unfit  for  market  on  account  of 
the  bitterweed.  In  sections  where  the  cotton  does  not  yield  much,  the 
honey  is  all  bitter,  and  a  small  amount  of  it  will  ruin  a  tank  of  good 
honey.  Bitterweed  is  also  a  great  pollen  plant,  furnishing  abundance 
of  bright  yellow  pollen  throughout  its  blooming  period.  Even  the 
stems  and  foliage  of  this  plant  are  intensely  bitter,  and  no  animals 
eat  it." 

Pammel  cites  a  quotation  which  states  that  it  has  been  reported  as 
fatal  to  horses  and  mules  in  several  of  the  Gulf  States.  It  is  said  to  con- 
tain a  narcotic  poison  and  to  be  the  cause  of  bitter  milk. 

A  relative  of  this  plant,  the  northern  sneezeweed  (Helenium  autom- 
nale)  is  also  a  good  honey  plant,  and  probably  less  bitter  than  the  south- 
ern or  narrow-leaved  sneezeweed  just  described.  Neither,  however,  can 
be  said  to  be  a  desirable  addition  to  the  honey-producing  flora,  because 
of  spoiling  good  honey  from  mixing  with  it.  The  northern  sneezeweed  is 
found  in  various  localities  from  Connecticut  to  the  Dakotas  and  south- 
ward.    It  is  also  found  in  places  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  States. 

The  bitter  honey  seems  to  be  as  good  as  any  for  brood-rearing  and, 
where  present,  the  beekeeper  should  use  care  to  avoid  mixing  it  with  his 
marketable  produce,  and  use  it  for  feeding  the  bees.  The  bitterness  is 
said  to  come  from  the  pollen  grains  present  in  the  hone}-,  which  improves 
greatly  with  age,  as  the  pollen  grains  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  con- 
tainer. 


BLACKBERRY  (Rubus). 

The  blackberries,  dewberries  and  raspberries  are  closely  related 
plants,  all  of  which  are  good  honey  sources.  The  blackberry  is  especially 
well  known  in  the  Southeastern  States,  where  it  thrives  in  fence  corners 
and  moist  woodland  borders.  In  north  Georgia  it  is  one  of  the  principal 
sources  of  surplus  honey.  Farther  north  the  nectar  yield  is  apparently 
not  as  good,  and  in  some  localities  the  bees  apparently  do  not  get  much 
honey  from  this  source.  Lovell  states  that  in  New  England  there  is  very 
little  nectar  available  from  either  wild  or  cultivated  blackberries.  Richter 
states  that  the  Himalaya  variety  of  blackberry  yields  some  honey  in  Yuba 
County,  California.     John   W.   Cash   reports   an   average   of  25   pounds   per 


58 


AMERICAN  HOXEY   PLANTS 


colony  of  surplus  at  Bogart,  Georgia.  The  honey  is  amber,  very  thick,  and 
does  not  granulate. 

There  are  parts  of  California  where  the  dewberry  is  reported  to  be 
very  important  and  to  yield  surplus.  The  honey  is  of  good  flavor  and  a 
light   amber  color. 

The  raspberry  is   the  most   important   of   the  group.     (See   Raspberry). 


BLACK  BINDWEED,  see  Bindweed. 
BLACK   GUM,   see   Tupelo. 


BLACK  HAW  (Viburnum  prunifolium). 

The  black  haw  belongs  to  a  group  containing  several  valuable  honey 
plants.  It  occurs  from  Connecticut  to  Michigan  and  south  to  Georgia, 
Albama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana  and  Texas.  (In  the  South  it  is  given  a 
varietal  name.)  It  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree,  blooming  in  the  North  in  May 
and  June  and  in  the  South  in  April  and  May.     Its  principal  value  lies  in 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


39 


stimulating   early   brood-rearing,   since   in   few   localities   it   is   of   sufficient 
abundance   to   be   important   as    a   source   of   surplus. 
Scholl  lists  it  as  yielding  well,  early,  in  Texas. 


Fig.   23.      The  black   mangrove   tree. 
BLACK  LOCUST,  see  Locust. 

BLACK    MEDIC    (Medicago    lupulina). 

Black  medic  is  a  widely  distributed  plant  in  California,  but  not  very 
common.  It  blooms  from  April  to  June.  It  is  the  source  of  some  nectar, 
but  is  probably  not  of  much  importance,  except  possibly  in  a  few  limited 
localities. 


BLACK   MANGROVE    (Avicennia   nitida). 

Black   mangrove    (Avicennia    nitida)    is    also   known    as   blackwood,   or 


40 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


blacktree.  It  is  an  evergreen  tree,  growing  along  the  seashores  of  the 
coast  of  Florida.  It  is  said  also  to  occur  to  some  extent  along  the  gulf 
coast  to  Texas  and  throughout  the  coasts  of  Tropical  America.  It  varies 
from  a  bushy  shrub  to  a  tall  tree  60  or  more  feet  in  height  in  tropical  re- 
gions. The  wood  is  coarse-grained,  hard  and  very  durable  in  contact  with 
the  soil.     The  tree  is  to  be  found  only  in  the  vicinity  of  salt  water. 

The  honey  from  the  mangrove  is  light  in  color,  mild  in  flavor,  and  is 
generally  regarded  as  of  first  quality.  According  to  E.  G.  Baldwin  it  was 
the  heaviest  yielder  of  nectar  known  in  the  south  prior  to  the  big  freeze 
ot  1895.  In  one  year  he  reports  Harry  Mitchell,  of  Hawk's  Park,  as  having 
secured  an  average  of  380  pounds  per  colony  from  mangrove  alone.  Fol- 
lowing the  freeze  it  failed  to  yield  nectar  in  surplus  quantity  for  about 
fifteen  years,  and  reports  since  that  time  have  indicated  that  it  is  not  up  to 
its    former   importance. 

The  blooming  period  opens  about  the  middle  of  June  and  usually 
includes  the  entire  month  of  July.  The  flow  usually  lasts  from  six  to 
eight   weeks. 

BLACK   TREE,   see   Black   Mangrove. 
BLACKWOOD,  see  Black  Mangrove. 

BLOODROOT  (Sanguinaria  canadensis). 

The  bloodroot  is  a  common  wild  flower  in  the  moist  woods  of  all  our 
Northern  States.  It  blooms  early  in  April,  and  is  eagerly  sought  by  the 
bees  for  pollen.     The  plant  is  shown  at  Fig.  24. 


j 

Fig.  24.     The  bloodroot  is  a  source  of  early  pollen. 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS  41 

BLUEBERRY  (Vaccinium). 

There  are  at  least  four  species  of  blueberry  which  give  surplus  honey 
in  localities  where  'they  are  abundant.  According  to  Sladen,  the  dwarf 
or  early  sweet  blueberry,  (Vaccinium  pennsylvanicum),  and  the  sour-top 
or  velvet-leaf  blueberry  (Vaccinium  canadense),  often  give  surplus  in 
northern  Ontario,  northern  Quebec  and  eastern   Manitoba.   . 

Blueberry  honey  is  frequently  reported  from  New  England.  W.  J. 
Sheppard  reports  that  Vaccinium  ovalifolium  is  of  importance  in  British 
Columbia. 

There  are  several  other  species  in  the  Northeastern  States  that  proba- 
bly yield  some  nectar.  Sladen  reports  blueberry  as  important  in  Nova 
Scotia. 

According  to  Lovell  Vaccinium  corymbosum,  the  high  bush  blueberry, 
is  important  in  southeastern  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island  and  Connecti- 
cut, in  some  localities  beekeepers  being  principally  dependent  upon  it.  The 
flow  comes  late  in  May  or  early  June  and  lasts  for  about  ten  days.  Strong 
colonies  store  as  high  as  50  to  90  pounds  of  surplus  from  it.  He  reports 
V.  pennsylvanicum,  the  low  bush  blueberry  already  mentioned,  as  common 
throughout  northern  New  England,  in  pastures  and  on  rocky  land.  It  is 
important  in  the  blueberry  barrens  of  Maine.  The  honey  is  amber  and 
of  good  flavor. 

BLUEBONNET,  see  Lupine. 
BLUEBOTTLE,    see    Centaurea. 

BLUE    CURLS    (Trichostema    lanceolatum). 

Blue  curls  is  a  plant  known  by  a  great  variety  of  names  in  California. 
It  is  known  as  vinegar  weed,  camphor  weed,  turpentine  weed,  flea  weed, 
bastard-pennyroyal,  etc.  It  abounds  over  a  large  portion  of  California. 
According  to  Jcpson,  the  range  is  throughout  the  Coast  Ranges,  Sierra 
Nevada  foothills  and  southern  California.  The  Western  Honeybee  lists 
it  as  the  best  fall  honey  plant  in  California.  Both  foliage  and  flowers  have 
a  pungent,  penetrating  odor.  The  plant  is  found  mostly  in  stubble  fields, 
where  it  appears  after  grain  harvest.  From  the  same  source  we  quote  as 
follows : 

"Under  favorable  atmospheric  conditions  it  yields  abundantly  of 
a  very  white  honey,  that  granulates  quickly  and  with  a  fine  grain. 
Sometimes  it  granulates  before  the  bees  have  time  to  seal  the  cells. 
One  peculiarity  of  this  plant  is  that  it  continues  to  yield  honey  for 
several  hours  after  falling  to  the  ground.  The  quality  of  the  honey  is 
good." — Western   Honeybee.     October,    1914. 

"It  is  often  claimed  that  rain  will  end  the  honeyflow  from  blue 
curls.  I  find  by  several  seasons'  observation  that  this  is  an  error.  If  a 
rain  is  followed  by  favorable  atmospheric  conditions — warmth  and  hu- 
midity— the  nectar  secretion  is  increased  instead  of  diminished." — 
Western  Honeybee,  November,  1916.. 

The  flow  from  blue  curls  begins  in  August  and  continues  till  frost. 
Richter  reports  that  very  large  yields  are  sometimes  secured  from  this 
source,  tons  of  honey  sometimes  being  stored  in  the  vicinity  of  Fresno.    A 


42 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


report   of  an  average  of  80  pounds  per  colony  from  this   source   reached 
the  author  when  visiting  at  Visalia. 


Fig.  25.     The  blue  curl. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


43 


BLUE   GUM,  see   Eucalyptus. 
BLUE  LUPINE,  see  Lupine. 
BLUET,  see  Centaurea. 

BLUE   THISTLE    (Eryngium   articulatum). 

The  blue  thistle  is  listed  by  Richter  as  the  source  of  a  dark  honey  of 
good  flavor  in  California.  He  reports  it  from  the  Suisun  Marshes,  along 
the  Consumnes  River  and  the  Alvarado  Marshes,  blooming  from  August 
to  October. 

BLUEVINE  (Gonolobus  laevis). 

This  plant  is  also  known  as  devil's  shoestring,  climbing  milkweed, 
sand  vine,  wild  sweet  potato  vine  and  anglepod.     It  is  a  vine  of  luxuriant 


Fig.   26.      Seed   pods  and 


the   bluevine,   or  sandvine. 


growth,  common  on  low  lands  from  Virginia  and  Tennessee  westward  to 
Missouri  and  south  to  Texas.  It  is  common  in  Southern  Ohio,  Indiana 
and  Illinois,  where  it  is  a  persistent  and  troublesome  weed.  It  is  espe- 
cially troublesome  in  the  corn  fields,  where  it  may  be  found  climbing  the 
stalks.  A  single  vine  will  run  for  many  feet  on  fence  wires  or  other  sup- 
port. It  blooms  freely  through  July  and  August,  and  is  the  source  of  large 
quantities  of  surplus  honey  of  good  quality.  The  honey  is  light  in  color, 
mild  in  flavor  and  does  not  granulate  readily.  S.  H.  Burton,  of  Washing- 
ton, Indiana,  reports  a  yield  of  60  pounds  per  colony  in  three  weeks  and 
an   average  of  as  high   as  80  pounds  per  colony  has   been   reported  from 


44 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


Southern  Indiana.  From  Missouri  come  similar  reports,  W.  L.  Wiley,  of 
Brunswick,  reporting  as  much  as  100  pounds  surplus  from  strong  colonies. 

The  plant  may  be  readily  recognized  by  the  abundant  clusters  of  small, 
white  flowers,  which  are  followed  by  seed  pods  similar  to  those  of  the 
milkweed.  When  the  pods  are  dry  they  split  open  and  the  seeds  are 
widely   scattered  by   means   of  their   cottony  parachutes. 

The   honey    is    clear,   heavy-bodied   and   of   excellent    flavor.     The    plant 


Fig.  27.     Boneset  yields  in  late  summer  and  fall. 


AMERICAN  HOXEY   PLANTS  45 

grows    chiefly    in    cornfields    in    river   bottom   land     and     is     perennial.      It 
blooms  before  smartweed,  but  the  smartweed  honey  is  usually  mixed  with 
it,  as  it  comes  in  later. 

BLUEWEED  or  VIPER'S  BUGLOSS  (Echium  vulgare). 

The  blueweed,  or  viper's  bugloss,  is  a  weed  naturalized  from  Europe. 
It  is  common  in  the  meadows  and  roadsides  of  the  Eastern  States.  It 
has  showy  purple  or  blue  flowers  and  grows  about  two  feet  high.  June 
is  the  flowering  period.  Sladen  lists  it  as  an  important  source  of  nectar 
in  Southern  Ontario.  Probably  not  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  very  im- 
portant in  many  places. 

This  plant  was  introduced  into  Australia  from  Europe  by  a  settler 
named  Patterson,  and  has  become  widely  spread  there,  where  it  is  known 
as  "Patterson's  curse."  Rayment  states  that  it  yields  honey,  but  hardly 
sufficient  to  store  much  in  the  supers.     (Money  in  Bees  in  Australasia). 

BONESET  (Eupatorium). 

There  are  475  species  of  Eupatorium  known,  many  of  them  found  in 
Tropical  America.  Some  are  found  in  Europe,  Asia  and  South  America, 
so  that  the  plants  have  a  wide  range.  Forty-five  or  more  species  are  com- 
mon to  North  America.  Whether  nearly  all  yield  nectar,  we  have  no  rec- 
ords to  prove.  Fig  27  shows  Eupatorium  ageratoides,  a  species  common 
from  New  England  south  to  Tennessee  and  Georgia.  According  to  J.  M. 
Buchanan,  it  is  common  over  the  State  of  Tennessee,  but  only  yields 
honey  in  the  northern  part.  He  reports  the  honey  to  be  a  light  amber,  of 
strong  flavor.  The  yield  comes  in  August  and  September.  Fig.  28  shows 
the  white  snakeroot  (E.  urticaefolium),  a  species  common  to  the  wood- 
lands of  the  Middle  West.  Although  the  bees  visit  this  species  freely, 
from  September  until  killed  by  frost,  usually  in  October,  the  honey  yield 
is  probably  rather  small. 

The  Joe-Pye  weed  or  turnip  weed  (E.  purpureum),  is  frequently  re- 
ported as  yielding  honey,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed 
species.  It  is  found  from  New  Brunswick  to  Manitoba  and  south  to  Colo- 
rado, Texas  and  Florida. 

The  boneset  of  commerce  is  made  from  thoroughwort  (E.  perfoli- 
atum),  which  is  one  of  the  best  for  honey  in  the  Northern  States  and 
Canada. 

All  the  bonesets  are  autumn  bloomers,  and  the  honey  is  usually  mixed 
witli  that  of  heartsease,  asters,  goldenrod,  Spanish  needles  and  other 
plants  blooming  at  the  same  period.  Several  years  ago  Professor  Beal 
made  the  statement,  in  the  American  Bee  Journal,  that  there  were  twenty 
species  or  more  valuable  to  the  bees.  The  wide  distribution  of  the  group, 
together  with  the  regularity  of  its  yield,  make  it  one  of  special  importance 
to  the  beekeeper,  although  the  amount  of  surplus  gathered  from  boneset 
is  not  often  as  large  as  that  of  many  other  well-known  plants. 

Some  species  of  boneset  are  to  be  found  in  almost  any  kind  of  situa- 
tion,    While  white  snakeroot  grows  in  shady  woodlands,  other  kinds  de- 


46 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


■ 

M/ 

SH^\^^^B(     ^^^J= 

Pi 

irfc 


Fig.  28.     White  snake  root. 

light  in  open,  sunny  situations,  along  roadsides  and  in  pastures  or  waste 
places.  Some  do  best  on  high  lands,  while  others  thrive  in  low,  wet  land. 
In  places  in  the  Mississippi  River  bottoms  in  Illinois,  boneset,  together 
with  heartsease  and  Spanish  needle,  cover  acres  of  the  richest  land  like  a 
waving  grain  field. 

An  Illinois  beekeeper  reports  Eupatorium  serotinum  to  be  one  of  the 
best  honey  plants  he  knows. 


BOOTJACK,  see  Spanish  Needle. 

BORAGE  (Borago  officinalis). 

Borage  is  a  European  plant  which  is  cultivated  for  honey  and  as  an 
ornamental.  Its  blue  flowers  are  very  attractive  to  the  bees.  The  follow- 
ing quotations  indicate  its  value  to  the  beekeeper: 

"The  period  of  blooming  is  from  June  20  to  cold  weather.     Where 
there  arc  no  plants  for  bees  to  work  upon,  borage  does  very  well;  but 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


47 


when  white  clover  and  hasswood  are  in  bloom,  bees  will  forsake  the 
borage  for  them.  As  cold  weather  begins  to  come,  they  swarm  to  the 
borage.  It  is  a  good  honey  plant,  when  there  are  no  plants  of  greater 
importance  in  bloom." — Fisk  Bangs,  American  Bee  Journal,  page  84, 
1878. 

"In  Practicher  Wegweiser,  page  280,  Herr  Willhelm  says  that  in 
response  to  the  general  cry,  'Sow  borage,'  he  has  been  sowing  it  for 
years  and  now  has  it  in  abundance.  How  the  bees  do  hum  upon  it! 
But,  alas!  now  that  he  has  it  in  such  abundance  that  it  shows  its  char- 
acter in  the  surplus  honey,  he  rinds  it  such  as  no  customer  wants,  and 
says  it  is  as  black  as  a  certain  'gentleman'  with  whom  beekeepers  do 
not  generally  care  to  have  dealings.  The  task  of  getting  it  now  rooted 
out   is  a  difficult  one."— American    Bee  Journal,  page   103.   1908. 

BOX  ELDER  (Negundo  aceroides  or  Acer  negundo). 

The  box  elder,  or  ash-leaved   maple,  is   a   near   relative   of   the  maples, 


Blossoms  of  tlic   box   elder 


and  is  sometimes  included  with  them.  Fig.  29  shows  the  staminate  blos- 
soms of  box  elder.  As  in  the  willows,  the  stamens  are  borne  on  one  plant 
and  the  pistils  on  another. 

The  box  elder  is  found  from  New  England  and  Southern  Canada  west 


48  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

to  Dakota  and  southward.  It  is  also  common  in  California.  Apparently 
its  range  does  not  extend  as  far  southward  as  other  maples.  It  is  very 
commonly  planted  for  windbreaks  and  shade  in  the  prairie  States  of  the 
Central  West.  Some  honey  is  yielded  by  the  blossoms,  and  honeydew  is 
often  secreted  by  aphis  feeding  on  the  leaves.  While  not  generally  re- 
garded as  especially  valuable,  its  season  is  such  that  its  addition  to  honey- 
producing  flora  is  important.  The  blooms  come  very  soon  after  soft 
maple,  in  April. 

BOSTON    IVY    (Ampelopsis   veitchii). 

The  Boston  ivy  is  a  well-known  climbing  vine,  clinging  to  the  walls  of 
brick  and  stone  buildings  in  all  our  northern  cities.  The  flowers  are  very 
attractive  to  the  bees  in  midsummer  and  the  bees  store  some  honey  from 
this  source.     The  quality  is  rather  inferior. 

BRASSICA,  see  Mustard. 

BRAZIL  or  LOGWOOD   (Condalia  obovata). 

Brazil  or  logwood  is  a  spiny  shrub,  or  small  tree,  common  to  Western 
Texas.  It  occurs  in  the  lower  Rio  Grande  and  is  reported  as  a  source  of 
honey  at  Brownsville.  There  it  is  smaller  than  farther  north  and  west. 
In  places  it  forms  very  dense  thickets,  called  "chaparral."  Beekeepers 
report  it  as  important  in  the  fall,  yielding  a  dark  honey.  The  honey  is 
said  to  be  of  fine  flavor,  despite  its  dark  color.  The  flow  at  Beeville  is 
reported  as  being  very  rapid.  At  Goliad,  W.  C.  Collier  reports  Brazil  as 
the  best  all-round  honey  plant.  He  states  that  it  blooms  sometimes  in 
spring  and  sometimes  in  fall.  Again,  it  sometimes  blooms  several  times, 
and  yields  at  irregular  periods.  At  Crystal  City,  the  honey  from  Brazil 
is  reported  as  rank  flavored,  exactly  opposite  from  reports  of  quality  in 
eastern  parts  of  its  range. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA— Honey  Plants  of. 

Indigenous  honey-yielding  flowers,  Kootenays,  B.  C. : 

Willows — Glauceus  or  pussy  willow  (Salix  discolor).  River  bank  wil- 
low (Salix  longifolia).  Flower  in  March  and  April  and  probably  yield 
more   pollen   than   honey. 

Dandelion  (Taraxicum  officinale).    Flowers  in  April  and  May. 

Bearberry — Kinnikinnik  Arctostaphylos  Uva  ursi). 

Blueberry   (Vaccinium   ovalifolium). 

Huckleberry   (Gaylussacia   resinosa). 

Choke  cherry  (Prunus  demissa). 

Bird  or   pin    cherry   (Prunus   pennsylvanica). 

Bearberry — Kinnikinnik  (Arctostaphylos   Uva  ursi). 

Wild  raspberry  (Rubus).     Flowers  in  June. 

Dogbane — Milkweed  (Apocynum  androsaemifolium).  Spreading  dog- 
bane. 

Snowberry  (Symphoricarpos   racemosus). 

Wolfberry   (Symphoricarpos   occidentalis). 

Canada  thistle  (Cirsium  arvense).     Flowers   in  June  and  July. 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


49 


Willow  herb  or  fireweed  (Epilobium  angustifolium). 

Goldenrod   (Soladago   canadense).     Flowers    in   July   and  August. 

— W.  J.  Sheppard.    American  Bee  Journal,  Nov.,  1917. 

BROOMWEED    (Gutierrezia    texana). 

Broomweed  is  a  common  fall  plant  over  a  large  portion  of  Texas,  on 
the  prairies.  According  to  Scholl  it  yields  well  in  September  and  October. 
The  honey  is  dark  and  strong  and  valued  mostly  for  winter  stores.  In  the 
November  1,  1906,  issue  of  American  Bee  Journal  he  writes  as  follows  con- 
cerning this  plant : 

"Broomweed  is  still  in  bloom,  the  pastures  being  one  sheet  of 
golden  yellow.  Cold  nights  and  cool,  windy  days  have  interfered  with 
the  bees  somewhat,  but  there  are  yet  many  warm  days  when  the  bees 
are  very  busy.  Some  of  my  bees  have  stored  a  good  deal  of  surplus 
from  this  plant,  for  this  time  of  the  year — about  20  pounds  per  colony. 
The  honey  is  a  golden  yellow  and  has  a  somewhat  strong  taste,  a  little 
bitter,  and  hence  is  not  a  suitable  honey  for  market." 


BUCKBRUSH,  see   Indian  Currant,  also  Snowberry  and  Dogbane. 
BUCKEYE  (Aesculus). 

The  buckeye  or  horse  chestnut 
is  widely  distributed  and  well 
known  because  of  the  poisonous 
properties  of  the  peculiar  nut-like 
fruit,  everywhere  called  buckeye. 
There  are  several  species,  with 
minor  differences.  The  photo- 
graph is  of  the  blossoms  of  the 
Ohio  buckeye  (Aesculus  glabra). 
This  species  occurs  from  New 
England  west  to  Iowa,  Kansas  and 
Oklahoma  and  south  to  Georgia, 
Alabama  and  east  Texas.  There  is 
a  species  common  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  known  as  the  California 
buckeye  (Aesculus  californica). 
This  species  is  reported  as  yield- 
ing considerable  honey  in  some  lo- 
calities in  California,  and  some 
beekeepers  think  it  is  poisonous  to 
the  bees. 

The  buckeye  is  widely  men- 
tioned as  a  honey  plant,  though 
there  are  few  localities  where  it  is 
sufficiently  abundant  to  be  import- 
ant   as    a    source    of    surplus. 

Fig.   30.     Blossoms  and   leaves  of  buckeye 
horse-chestnut. 


50  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

BUCKTHORN    (Rhamnus). 

The  common  buckthorn  (Rhamnus  cathartica)  is  a  hedge  plant  intro- 
duced from  Europe  and  commonly  cultivated.  It  has  become  naturalized 
in  some  localities. 

In  California  there  are  three  species  reported  as  important  sources  of 
honey.  The  coffee  berry  (Rhamnus  californica)  is  an  evergreen  shrub 
4  to  6  feet  high,  with  olive-like  leaves,  common  to  the  Coast  Ranges  and 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  and  southward.     Called  also  pigeon  berry. 

Richter  reports  this  species  as  yielding  an  amber  honey  of  very  heavy 
body  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  and  also  in  San 
Diego   County.     Honey  of  good   flavor,   slightly   cathartic. 

The  redberry  (Rhamnus  crocea)  occurs  in  the  Napa  Range  and  south- 
ward near  the  coast  to  southern  California,  according  to  Jepson.  It  is 
tree-like,  with  a  distinct  trunk,  sometimes  several  stems  clustered,  5  to  12 
feet   high.     Richter   reports   it   of   special  value   for   early  breeding. 

The  Cascara  Sagrada  or  Chittam  (Rhamnus  purshiana)  occurs  in 
northern  California,  where  it  is  reported  as  an  important  source  of  amber 
honey.  In  the  timbered  portions  of  western  Oregon,  Washington  and 
British  Columbia,  it  is  reported  as  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  honey.  The 
honey  is  amber,  with  a  delightful  aroma.  When  fully  ripened  it  is  too 
thick  to  extract  readily,  and  there  is  much  breakage  of  combs.  The  flow 
begins  in  May  and  the  honey  is  usually  mixed  with  that  from  other  plants. 
The  blooming  period  lasts   about  a  month. 

"We  get  more  honey  from  cascara  than  from  any  other  one  plant 
in  this  vicinity.  It  is  so  dark  as  a  comb  honey  that  it  is  a  poor  seller 
to  those  who  go  on  looks  alone.  We  prefer  it  on  our  table  to  any 
other  honey.  I  have  customers  who  will  take  no  other.  It  is  not  purga- 
tive, but  one  of  the  best  remedies  for  chronic  constipation  known.  I 
have  never  known  any  of  the  pure  article  to  granulate  under  any  con- 
ditions."— A.  D.  Herold,  Gleanings,  Jan.  1,  1910. 

BUCKWHEAT  (Fagopyrum  esculentum). 

Buckwheat  is  a  native  to  Asia,  which  was  early  introduced  into 
America  from  Europe  by  the  colonists.  It  has  become  an  important  field 
crop,  and  buckwheat  flour  is  a  staple  in  American  markets.  It  is  often 
sowed  as  a  catch  crop  on  lands  that  have  not  been  ready  for  early  sown 
crops,  or  where  the  first  sowed  crop  failed  to  secure  a  stand.  It  requires 
a  short  season  in  which  to  reach  maturity  and  is  usually  sown  in  June  or 
July.  It  needs  a  cool,  moist  climate  for  best  results  and  often  fails  to 
yield  a  satisfactory  crop  of  grain  or  to  secrete  nectar  in  the  hot  and  dry 
atmosphere  of  Iowa  and  Nebraska. 

It  is  well  suited  to  sandy  or  other  light  soils  and  is  grown  exten- 
sively in  the  sandy  lands  of  northern   Michigan. 

Buckwheat  is  an  important  source  of  surplus  honey  in  the  region  of 
the  Great  Lakes.  Ontario,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  Michigan 
are  the  States  from  which  come  the  great  crops  of  buckwheat  honey. 
Although  the  crop  is  often  grown  further  west,  the  amount  of  honey 
secured  is  very  disappointing  in  most  cases.  The  author  corresponded  with 
a   number   of  prominent  Iowa   beekeepers,   and   found   only  one   who   had 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


secured  surplus  honey  from  buckwheat  to  any  extent,  and  his  was  mixed 
with  other  sources  to  such  an  extent  as  to  have  a  very  different  color  and 
flavor  from  that  which  is  secured  unmixed. 

It  was  given  a  trial  at  the  Texas  Agricultural  College  for  a  period  of 
three  years.  It  failed  to  meet  expectations  as  a  honey  plant  on  account  of 
the  hot  and  dry  weather  which  prevails  there  during  most  summers.  It 
was  reported  as  blooming  profusely,  but  not  yielding  nectar. 

In  New  York  it  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  honey  plants.  The  late 
E.  W.  Alexander,  writing  in  Gleanings,  stated  that  he  had  kept  200  colonies 
in  a  location  with   scarcely  100  acres  of  buckwheat  within  four  miles,  yet 


S^&fci 


^5% 


Fig.  31.  Buckwheat  field  in  bloom, 
had  harvested  15  to  20  pounds  of  section  honey  from  buckwheat  per  colony. 
He  stated  that  it  yielded  best  with  cool  nights  followed  by  a  clear  sky 
and  a  hot  sun.  with  little  or  no  wind.  Under  such  conditions  it  secreted 
nectar  Ereely  from  about  9  a.  m.  to  2  p.  m.  No  bees  would  be  seen  on  it 
earlier  or  later  in  the  day.  On  one  occasion,  when  there  were  1,500  acres 
of  buckwheat  within  reach  of  his  bees,  they  were  gathering  fast  at  the 
beginning  of  the  August  harvest.  A  thunder  storm  caused  the  tempera- 
ture to  drop  21  degrees  in  less  than  half  an  hour.  The  weather  remained 
cloudy  and  windy,  with  a  temperature  of  about  65  degrees,  for  eleven  days. 
During  that  time  the  bees  gathered  no  honey,  and  destroyed  much  of  their 
brood. — Gleanings,  March   15,  1907. 

The  Ontario  Association's  Crop  Report  Committee  reported  an  aver- 
age per  colony  production  of  23  pounds  from  the  more  than  ten  thousand 
colonies  belonging  to  its  members  for  two  vears  in  succession.     A  writer 


52  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

in  the  American  Bee  Journal  asserts  that  in  a  favorable  season  an  acre  of 
buckwheat  will  yield  25  pounds  of  honey  daily,  and  that  a  strong  colony 
within  half  a  mile  of  a  field,  will  store  six  to  eight  pounds  per  day.  Alex- 
ander kept  as  high  as  700  colonies  in  one  yard,  at  his  home  near  Delanson, 
New  York,  and  secured  satisfactory  crops,  though,  of  course,  there  was 
a   large   acreage   within   reach. 

Quality    of    the    Honey 

Honey  from  buckwheat  is  very  dark  and  has  a  strong  flavor.  People 
who  are  accustomed  to  light  and  mild  honey  of  the  clover  type  seldom  like 
it.  On  the  other  hand,  residents  of  the  west,  who  were  raised  in  the  buck- 
wheat country  of  eastern  New  York,  regard  the  clover  honey  as  insipid 
and  not  to  be  compared  to  the  dark  honey  with  which  they  were  familiar 
in  childhood.  Buckwheat  honey  has  a  peculiar  flavor,  slightly  nauseating 
to  one  unaccustomed  to  it. 

During  a  heavy  flow  from  this  source  there  is  a  strong  odor  present 
in  the  apiary  which  can  be  detected  for  some  distance.  J.  L.  Byer,  in  the 
American  Bee  Journal,  tells  of  a  case  where  a  farmer  and  his  wife  spent 
some  time  looking  for  dead  chickens  in  the  vicinity  of  the  hives,  mistak- 
ing the  odor  of  the  new  nectar,  which  the  bees  were  bringing  in,  for  that 
of  a  dead  fowl.     (Page  306,  October,  1908.) 

Buckwheat  varies  somewhat  in  density,  acording  to  weather  condi- 
tions at  the  time  it  is  gathered.  When  fully  ripened  on  the  hives  it  is 
sometimes  so  thick  as  to  be  hard  to  extract.  Some  beekeepers  report 
honey  from  this  source  which  weighs  as  much  as  fourteen  pounds  to  the 
gallon.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  numerous  reports  of  very  thin  honey, 
probably  because  of  being  extracted  before  fully  ripened. 

Buckwheat  honey  is  used  largely  in  France  to  make  a  gingerbread 
"pain  d'epices,"  in  which  the  peculiar  odor  and  flavor  of  the  buckwheat  is 
very  noticeable  and  is  much  liked  by  those  who  are  accustomed  to  it. 

BUCKWHEAT  TREE,  see  Ti-Ti. 
BUFFALO  BEAN,  see  Loco  Weed. 
BULL   BAY,  see   Magnolia. 
BUM-WOOD,  see   Poisonwood. 

BURDOCK  (Arctium  lappa). 

The  burdock  is  a  coarse,  disagreeable  weed,  introduced  from  Europe 
and  Asia.  It  is  now  common  over  the  United  States.  The  burrs  fasten 
themselves  to  the  clothing  or  to  passing  animals,  and  in  this  manner  the 
seeds  are  spread.     It  is  a  biennial,  common  in  barn  lots  and  waste  places. 

The  burdock  is  one  of  the  many  plants  on  which  the  bees  work  to 
some  extent  that  never  count  for  very  much  in  the  total  production  of 
the  hive.  The  sources  of  surplus  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  but 
there  are  hundreds  of  plants  from  which  the  bees  get  a  taste  of  honey  or 
pollen.  The  presence  or  absence  of  these  minor  plants  makes  a  great 
difference  in  the  value  of  a  locality  for  honey  production.  If  there  are 
enough   of  them  to  keep   the  bees  busy,  and   sustain   the  colony  between 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


S3 


flows  when  the  good  yield  comes,  the  bees  are  in  the  best  possible  condi- 
tion to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity. 


Fig.  32.     Burdock. 

BUR   CLOVER    (Medicago   denticulata).     Wild. 

Bur  clover  is  a  relative  of  alfalfa  which  is  very  common  over  much 
of  California.  The  burs  are  produced  abundantly  and  the  plant  is  prized 
as  a  stock  forage.  The  plant,  although  spreading  like  a  weed,  is  valuable 
both  to  live  stock  and  for  bees.  The  principal  blooming  period  is  from 
March   till  June,  though  it  blooms  to  some  extent  at  all  seasons. 

Richter  lists  it  as  especially  valuable  to  stimulate  early  breeding,  but 
states  that  surplus  is  occasionally  harvested  from  this  source  and  that 
it  is  fully  equal  to  filaree  or  pin  clover  as  a  honey  plant. 


BUR-MARIGOLD,  see   Spanish   Needle. 

BUSH    HONEYSUCKLE    (Diervilla   Lonicera). 

The  bush  honeysuckle  is  a  common  bush  shrub  in  the  northeastern 
States.  It  is  to  be  found  from  Newfoundland  south  to  North  Carolina  and 
west  to  Minnesota.  It  is  reported  as  common  in  New  England  and  On- 
tario.    In  Northern   Minnesota,  where   it   is   abundant,   beekeepers   report 


54 


AMERICAN  HOXEY   PLANTS 


that  the  bees  work  it  eagerly  when  the  weather  will  permit.  The  flowers 
are  not  showy,  but  the  profuse  bloom  is  rich  in  nectar.  The  blooming 
period  begins  in  June  and,  in   some  places,  continues   as   late  as  August. 

BRUNNICHIA. 

The   tendril-bearing  smartweed,  or  ladies'  ear   drops   (Brunnichia  cirr- 

hosa)  is  a  perennial  climbing  vine,  common  to  the  southeastern  States. 
It  ranges  from  southern  Illinois  and  Arkansas  to  South  Carolina  and 
Florida.  An  Arkansas  beekeeper  reports  that  the  plant  is  abundant  in  his 
locality  and  covered   with  bees. 

H.  B.  Parks  reports  it  grows  on  the  low  lands  of  Southeast  Texas, 
where   it   blooms   from   March    till   August   and   yields   some   surplus. 

BUFFALO  CURRANT   (Ribes  aureum). 

The  yellow  flowers  of  the  buffalo  currant  are  very  fragrant  and  ap- 
parently contain  much  nectar.  The  writer  has  often  noticed  the  bees 
working  on  the  blossoms,  but  since  the  corolla  tubes  are  half  an  inch  or 
more  in  length  he  supposed  they  were  getting  only  pollen.  A  close  ex- 
amination showed  that  the  bees  were  unmistakably  getting  nectar  from 
this  source  and  that  the  tubes  had  been  slit  entirely  down  one  side  by 
some  unknown  agency.  Whether  this  is  a  common  occurrence  the  author 
cannot  say. 


Blossoms   of   the   button-bush. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  55 

BUTTER  WEED  or  GROUNDSEL  (Senecio). 

The  groundsels  are  herbs  with  alternate  leaves  and  mostly  yellow 
flowers,  common  to  the  northeastern  States.  The  bees  are  reported  as 
working  upon  them  freely,  but  they  are  probably  of  minor  importance. 

BUTTON-BUSH    (Cephalanthus    occidentals). 

The  button-bush,  also  called  button  willow,  is  a  bushy  shrub  growing 
in  marshy  places,  stagnant  shallow  water,  and  along  streams,  from  New 
England  to  Texas  and  west  to  California.  This  shrub,  or  in  places  a  small 
tree,  has  a  very  wide  range  and  is  found  in  most  of  the  States  where 
honey  production  is  important.  Bulletin  No.  102  of  the  Texas  Agricul- 
tural College,  reports  it  as  common  throughout  Texas,  and  the  bulletin 
relating  to  honey  plants  of  California  (217  Experiment  Station),  records 
it  as  a  good  honey  plant  in  California.  It  is  listed  in  the  catalog  of  plants 
of  nearly  every  State  and  of  Canada,  which  the  author  has  consulted.  It 
is   also  said  to  occur   in  Asia,  and  possibly  Africa. 

Our  readers  who  live  in  the  vicinity  of  wet  lands  are  likely  to  find 
specimens  near  at  hand.  In  a  few  sections  it  is  sufficiently  abundant  to 
be  an  important  addition  to  the  midsummer  flora.  It  is  reported  as  more 
particularly  valuable  in  the  overflowed  lands  along  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  bees  seek  it  eagerly  when  in  bloom,  and  in  places  where  it  is  plentiful 
it  is  regarded  as  of  considerable  value  as  a  honey  plant. 

The  honey  is  light  in  color  and  mild  in  flavor,  according  to  published 
reports.  Fig.  33  shows  a  near  view  of  the  flowers,  which  are  crowded  to- 
gether  in   dense  heads,  giving  them   the   appearance  of  cotton   balls. 

The  shrub  is  very  bushy,  with  an  abundant  foliage.  It  is  reported  as 
reaching  a  height  of  40  feet  in  California.  In  Alabama  it  is  recorded  as 
a  shrub  of  from  6  to  15  feet  in  height,  which  is  more  like  its  appearance  in 
Iowa,  according  to  the  author's  observation.  Here  it  is  rather  a  small 
bush,  not  much  higher  than  a  man's  head,  and  as  far  across,  with  many 
branches   from  the  ground. 

The  blooming  period  is  July  and  August,  according  to  locality,  a  sea- 
son  when   additions   to  the   honey-producing  flora  are  most   welcome. 

BUTTON-WEED   (Diodia  teres). 

The  button-weed  occurs  on  sandy  lands  from  New  England  to  Florida 
and  west  to  Kansas  and  Texas.  Scholl  lists  it  as  yielding  honey  well 
during  drought  in  Texas,  but  not  as  a  source  of  surplus. 

BUTTON   WILLOW,  see  Button  Bush. 


56  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


CABBAGE   (Brassica  oleracea). 

Cabbage  belongs  to  a  group  of  valuable  honey  plants,  including  mus- 
tard, turnip,  etc.  In  the  seed  belt  of  California,  where  grown  for  seed 
on  a  large  scale,  cabbage  is  valuable.     The  late  J.  S.  Harbison  said  of  it: 

"Cabbage   blossoms    afford    a    considerable    amount    of   honey   of   a 

fine   quality   and   flavor." — Beekeeper's   Directory. 

CACTUS,  see  Prickly  Pear. 
CALICO  BUSH,  see  Laurel. 
CALIFORNIA  HOLLY,  see  Christmas  Berry.  __ 

CALIFORNIA— Honey  Sources   of. 

Honey  plants  yielding  a  surplus  during  an  average  season: 

Yucca   (Hesperoyucca  whipplei). 

Willow   (Salix  sp.) 

Wild  buckwheat   (Eriogonum  fasciculatum). 

Berberis   pinnata. 

Black  mustard  (Brassica  nigra). 

English  mustard   (Brassica  sp.) 

Rocky  Mountain  honey  plant  (Cleome  integrifolia). 

Jackass   clover   (Wislizenia  refracta). 

Christmas  berry  (Heteromeles  arbutifolia). 

Pear   (Pyrus  communis). 
Apple  (Pyrus  malus). 
Wild  alfalfa  (Lotus  glaber). 
Bur   clover   (Medicago   denticulata). 
Alfalfa    (Medicago   sativa)   . 
White   sweet   clover   (Melilotus  alba). 
Yellow  sweet  clover  (Melilotus   officinalis). 
Lima   bean   (Phaseolus   lunatus). 
Alfilerilla   (Erodium  cicutarium). 
White  stem  filaree  (Erodium  moschatum). 
Orange   (Citrus  aurantium). 
Tree   of  heaven   (Ailanthus  glandulosa). 
Poison  oak  (Rhus  diversiloba). 
(Laurel)    Sumac   (Rhus  laurina). 
Pepper   tree   (Schinus   molle). 
California   buckeye   (Aesculus   californica). 
Coffee    berry    (Rhamnus   californica). 
Cascara  sagrada  (Rhamnus  purshiana). 
Wild  hollyhock   (Sidalcea  malvaeflora). 
Prickly   pear    (Opuntia   lindheimeri   occidentalis). 
Lemon  scented  gum  (Eucalyptus  citriodora). 
White  stringy-bark  (Eucalyptus  eugenioides). 
Blue   Gum  (Eucalyptus  globulus). 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  57 

Red  gum  (Eucalyptus  rostrata). 
Manna   gum   (Eucalyptus   viminalis). 
Blue   thistle   (Cryngium   articulatum). 
Manzanita   (Arctostaphylos). 
Yerba   Santa   (Eriodictyon   trichocalix). 
Caterpillar    phacelia    (Phacelia   hispida). 
Valley  vervenia  (Phacelia  tenacetifolia). 
Carpet  grass  (Lippia  nodiflora). 
Horehound    (Marrubium   vulgare). 
Peppermint   (Mentha   spicata). 
White    sage    (Salvia   apiana). 
Thistle   sage  (Salvia  carduacea). 
Annual   sage   (Salvia  columbariae). 
Purple   sage    (Salvia   leucophylla). 
Black   sage   (Salvia  mellifera). 
Creeping    sage    (Salvia    sonomensis). 
Blue    curls    (Trichostema    lanceolatum). 
Button   willow  (Cephalanthus  occidentalis). 
Xapa   thistle  (Centaurea  melitensis). 
Spike   weed   (Centromadia  pungens). 
Bull  thistle   (Cirsium   lanceolatum). 
Common    sunflower    (Helianthus    annuus). 
Coast   tarweed   (Hemizonia  corymbosa). 
Tarweed   (Hemizonia   fasciculata). 
Yellow   tarweed    (Hemizonia  virgata). 
"Yellow  Tops"  (Hemizonia). 
Goldenrod    (Solidago   occidentalis). 
Rabbit    brush    (while)    (Chrysothamnus   nauseosus   hypolluca). 

Cultivated   plants   that   would   rank    with   the   above   had   they   a   wider 
distribution  : 

Common  century  plant  (Agave  americana). 
White  clover  (Trifolium  repens). 
American   linden   (Tilia  americana). 
Tamarisk   (Tamaris,  Eucalyptus   calophylla). 
Yate   tree   (Eucalyptus  cornuta). 
Sugar  gum  (Eucalyptus  corynocalyx). 

Cider   gum    (Eucalyptus   Gunnii,   Eucalyptus    Lehmannii). 
White  ironbark  (Eucalyptus  leucoxylon). 
Spotted  gum   (Eucalyptus   maculata). 
Honey  scented  gum  (Eucalyptus  ficifolia). 
Red   boxtree    (Eucalyptus  polyanthemos). 
Red  mahogany  gum   (Eucalyptus  resinifera). 
Swamp   mahogany  gum   (Eucalyptus   robusta). 
Broad  leaved  ironbark  (Eucalyptus  siderophloia). 
Victoria  ironbark  (Eucalyptus   sideroxylon). 
Apple   scented   gum   (Eucalyptus    Stuartiana). 
Forest  gray  gum  (Eucalyptus  tereticornia). 


58  AMERICAN  HOXEY   PLANTS 

Honej'   plants   occasionally   yielding   a   surplus  : 

Asparagus  (Asparagus  officinalis). 

Live   oak   (Quercus  agrifolia). 

Blue   oak   (Quercus   douglassii). 

Valley   oak    (Quercus   lobata). 

Mistletoe    (Phoradendron). 

Common  mustard  (Brassica  campestris). 

Wild    radish    (Raphanus   sativus,  Escallonia   montevidensis). 

Wild   currant   (Ribes   sanguineum). 

Greasewood    (Adenostema   fasciculatum). 

Castor  oil  plant  (Ricinus  communis). 

Islay  or  holly  leaved  cherry  (Cerasus  illicifolia). 

Bitter   almond   (Prunus  amygdalus). 

Apricot   (Prunus  amygdalus). 

Apricot    (Prunus   armeniaca). 

Cherry  (Prunus  cerasus). 

Plum   and   prune    (Prunus   domestica). 

Peach   (Prunus  persica). 

Raspberry  (Rubus   strigosus). 

Cultivated   bla'ckberry   (Rubus   villosus). 

Himalayan  berry  (Rubus  villosus  var). 

Common  wild  blackberry  (Rubus  vitifolius). 

Black   wattle    (Acacia  decurrens   mollis). 

Golden    wattle    (Acacia   pycnantha). 

Rattleweed    (Astragalus). 

Yellow   sweet   clover   (Melilotus   indica). 

Locust    (Robinia  pseudo-acacia). 

Sour  clover  (Trifolium  fucatum). 

Alsike   (Trifolium  hybridum). 

Gorse    (Ulex    europaeus). 

Mandarin    (Citrus    nobilis,   Croton   californicus). 

Turkey   mullein   (Eremocarpus   setigerus,  Ceanothus  cuneatus). 

Wild   lilac   (Ceanothus,  Rhamnus  corcea). 

Grape    (Vitis    vinifera). 

Cotton    (Gossypium   herbaceum,   Godetia   bottae). 

California  waterweed  (Jussiaea  californica). 

Sweet   fennel  (Foeniculum  vulgare). 

Madrona   (Arbutus  menziesii). 

Oregon   ash   (Fraxinus   oregona). 

Olive   (Olea  europaea). 

Morning  glory   (Convolvulus    arvensis,   Gilia   chamissonis). 

Hill  verveilia    (Phacelia  distans,  Phacelia  ramosissima). 

Heliotrope    (Heliotropium). 

Lawn   plant    (Lippia  repens). 

Wild   verbena    (Verbena   prostrata). 

Verba   Buena  (Micromeria  chamissonis). 

Hedge  nettle   (Stachys  bullata). 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  59" 

California  figwort  (Scrophularia  californica). 

Simpson's  honey  plant  (Scrophularia  vernalis). 

Watermelon   (Citrullus   vulgaris). 

Cantaloupe   (Cucumis  mello). 

Cucumber    (Cucumis    sativus). 

Winter    squash    (Cucurbita   moschata). 

Pumpkin   (Cucurbita  pepo). 

Globe  artichoke  (Cynara  Scolymus). 

Jerusalem  artichoke   (Helianthus   tuberosus). 

Mayweed   (Anthemis  cotula). 

Beggar    ticks    (Bidens    frondosa). 

Spanish    needle    (Bidens   pilosa,   Coreopsis    gigantea). 

Cultivated   plants   that   would   rank   with   the   above   had   they   a   wider 
distribution  : 

Mignonette   (Reseda  odorata). 

White   tree   clover   (Cystisus  proliferus,  Melilotus  bicolor). 

Poinsettia    (Euphorbia   pulcherrima). 

Honey  plants  not  known  to  yield  a  surplus  : 

Corn   (Zea  mays). 

Tanbark   oak   (Quercus  densiflora). 

Virgin's  bower  (Clematis  ligusticifolia,  Clematis). 

California  laurel  (Umbellularia  californica). 

California   poppy   (Eschscholtzia  californica). 

Cream    cups    (Platystemon   californicus). 

Canyon  gooseberry  (Ribes  menziesii). 

(Western)   chokecherry  (Cerasus  demissa). 

Rose    (Rosa   californica). 

Wild   sweet   pea   (Lathyrus  splendens). 

Lupin  (Lupinus  affinis). 

Nonesuch    (Medicago   lupulina)   . 

Red  clover   (Trifolium  pratense). 

Spring  vetch   (Vicia   sativa). 

Maple   (Acer  negundo). 

Virginia   creeper  (Ampelopsis  quinquefolia). 

California   wild  grape   (Vitis  californica). 

Small   flowered   mallow    (Malva   parviflora). 

White   mallow    (Malva    sylvestris,   Helianthemum    scoparium). 

Milkweed    (Asclepias   mexicana). 

Milkweed    (Asclepias    speciosa). 

Dodder    (Cuscuta). 

Common    heliotrope    (Heliotropium   curassavicum). 

Tournefortia     heliotropoides. 

Tule  mint  (Mentha  canadensis). 

Pennyroyal    (Monardella    lanceolata). 

Loving  sage   (Salvia  amabilis). 

Winter  savory  (Satureia  montana. 


60 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Stachys  ajugoides. 
Stachys   albens. 
Veronica  andersonii. 

Common  plantain   (Plantego  major). 
Wild   honeysuckle   (Lonicera). 
Blue   elderberr\-   (Sambucus   glauca). 

Cornflower  (Centaurea  cyanus),  Encelia  californica,  Eriophyllum  con- 
fertiflorum,  Heterotheca  grandiflora,  Malacothris   saxatilis. 

Common   sow   thistle   (Sonchus  oleraceus,  Sonchus   maruanthus). 

— M.  C.  Richter,  Bulletin  217,  Agricultural  Experiment   Station,  Cal. 

CALIFORNIA  POPPY,  see  Poppy. 

CAMPANILLA    (Ipomoea). 

The  campanillas,  or  Christmas  bells,  are  plants  similar  to  our  American 
morning-glory,  which  are  common  to  Cuba  and  adjacent  countries.  The 
vines  are  perennial  and  grow  to  considerable  size,  covering  wayside  fences, 
trees,  etc.     The   name   Christmas   bells,   applied  to   white   bellflower,  comes 


Fig.   3.5.     Catalpa  blossoms, 
from  the  fact  that  the  height  of  the  blooming  period  is  reached  near   the 
holiday  season.     There   are  two  species,  known   as  white  campanilla   (Ipo- 
moea  sidaefolia),   and    the    pink    bellflower    (Ipomoea    triloba)..    The    latter 
blooms  a  month  or  two  before  the  white  variety. 

The  honey,  according  to  Root's  ABC,  is  equal  to  alfalfa  or  sage  in 
color  and  flavor,  the  comb  built  during  a  campanilla  flow  being  pearly 
white  and  the  wax,  when  melted,  as  white  as  tallow. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


(.1 


CAMPHOR  WEED,  see  Blue  Curls. 
CANADA  THISTLE   (Carduus  arvensis). 

The  Canada  thistle  is  a  most  troublesome  weed,  naturalized  from 
Europe  and  widely  spread  through  Eastern  America.  It  is  a  perennial 
plant,  growing  from  one  to  two  feet  high.  The  roots  creep  extensively, 
thus  gradually  spreading  the  plant  to  surrounding  areas.  It  is  very  per- 
sistent and  difficult  to  eradicate.  It  is  common  in  fields,  pastures  and  along 
roadsides. 

It  is  the  source  of  a  light  honey  of  good  quality.    It  is  most  frequently 
reported  as  a  source  of  surplus  in  Ontario  and  the  Eastern  States. 
CANADIAN   HEMP,  see  Dogbane. 
CARPET  GRASS  (Lippia). 

The    carpet   grass    of    California    (Lippia    repens)    is    a    native    of   Chili 

which  has  been  introduced  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  and  widely  culti- 
vated as  a  lawn  plant.  It  is  known 
as  lawn  plant,  carpet  grass  and 
lippia.  It  is  much  sought  by  the 
bees  and  is  the  source  of  some 
honey,  a  surplus  of  two  cases  per 
colony  being  not  unusual,  accord- 
ing to  C.  D.  Stuart.  The  honey, 
he  states,  is  light  amber,  heavy 
body,  and  similar  in  quality  to  al- 
falfa. The  plant  is  of  trailing 
habit,  spreading  by  rooting  of 
runners  like  strawberries.  Fig.  34. 
Lippia  nodiflora,  mat  grass  or 
fog  fruit,  is  native  to  California, 
and.  according  to  Richter,  is  the 
principal  source  of  surplus  honey 
in  the  vicinity  of  Sacramento. 
Three-fourths  of  the  surplus 
honey  from  Sutter  County  he 
reports  as  from  this  source.  There 
it  begins  to  bloom  in  May  and 
lasts  till  frost.  According  to  Jep- 
son,  the  plant  is  esteemed  as  a 
covering  for  levees,  to  resist  ero- 
sion. It  is  especially  valuable  on 
overflowed  lands  after  the  water 
recedes.  The  honey  is  said  to  be 
light  in  color,  mild  in  flavor,  and 
to    granulate    readily. 

CARROT    (Daucus    carota). 

The    carrot     is     a     well-known 
garden  vegetable  which  came  from 


Fig.   34.     Carpet   grass   or   Lippia. 


62 


AMERICAN  HOXEY   PLANTS 


Europe  and  is  everywhere  cultivated  in  gardens.  It  has  escaped  and  be- 
come naturalized  over  a  wide  scope  of  country.  It  yields  some  honey, 
and  where  grown  on  a  large  scale  for  seed  or  for  the  roots,  it  is  valuable 
for  the  bees. 

We  quote  Richter  as  follows  : 

"Honey  white,  with  a  characteristic  flavor,  and  granulating  within 
a  few  months  after  extraction.  A  most  excellent  yielder  in  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley,  where  it  is  considered  to  surpass  the  onion  as  a  honey 
plant." — Honey   Plants  of  California. 

CASCARA  SAGRADA,  see  Buckthorn. 
CASSIA,  see  Partridge  Pea. 

CASTOR  BEAN  (Ricinus  communis). 

The  castor  bean,  or  castor  oil  plant,  is  often  cultivated  for  the  oil  con- 


Fig.  36.     Catnip. 

tents  of  the  beans.  Large  areas  were  planted  during  the  late  war,  espe- 
cially in  Texas.  The  plant  has  escaped  from  cultivation  and  become  nat- 
uralized in  the  Southeastern  States.  It  is  generally  planted  for  ornament 
over  a  large  scope  of  country.  It  is  reported  as  very  attractive  to  the 
bees  and  of  some  value  for  honey,  where  sufficiently  abundant.  Scholl 
lists  it  in  the  Texas  bulletin  as  yielding  well  in  favorable  seasons.  Richter 
lists  it  also  for  California. 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS  63 

CASTOR  OIL  PLANT,  see  Castor  Bean. 

CATALPA  (Catalpa  speciosa). 

The  catalpa  tree  produces  a  great  profusion  of  bloom.  The  blossoms 
are  so  large  that  a  bee  can  readily  crawl  right  into  the  heart  of  the  flower. 

The  testimony  of  competent  observers  gives  an  unqualified  indorse- 
ment of  the  catalpa  as  a  nectar  producer,  though  there  is  slight  mention 
of  it  in  our  literature.  The  fact  that  large  areas  of  these  trees  are  being 
planted  for  timber,  in  many  places,  makes  them  of  special  interest  to  the 
beekeeper.  The  catalpa,  or  Indian  bean  (Catalpa  speciosa)  is  a  native  of 
the  woodlands  of  southern  Indiana  and  Tennessee,  west  to  Arkansas.  This 
form,  known  as  the  hardy  catalpa,  is  also  widely  planted  in  Iowa,  Illinois, 
Kansas,  Nebraska  and  other  States.  There  is  another  similar  species 
closely  resembling  it  which  occurs  further  south,  and  is  common  in  the 
Gulf  States. 

The  leaves  are  heart-shaped  and  the  blossoms  are  large,  nearly  white, 
and  grow  in  large  clusters,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35.  The  tree  grows  very  rapidly 
furnishing  desirable  timber  for  fence  posts,  telephone  poles,  railroad  ties, 
etc.  In  Kansas,  large  areas  have  been  planted  by  the  railroad  companies 
for  the  purpose  of  growing  ties.  Beekeepers  situated  near  such  plantings 
should  find  the  trees  of  material  value. 


CATNIP    (Nepeta   Cataria). 

Catnip,  or  catmint,  was  introduced  from  Europe,  and  cultivated  in  herb 
gardens.  It  is  thus  an  escaped  introduction  and  has  become  very  widely 
naturalized  in  the  United  States,  although  it  is  generally  considered  a 
weed.  It  is  usually  found  only  in  the  vicinity  of  buildings  and  gardens, 
and  seldom  spreads  into  the  fields  to  any  extent.  Almost  all  of  us  remem- 
ber the  popularity  of  catnip  tea  among  the  grandmothers  of  an  earlier 
generation.  The  plant  is  a  perennial,  growing  from  2  to  3  feet  high,  with 
flowers  in  clusters,  the  more  conspicuous  ones  being  in  a  terminal  spike. 
The  blooming  season  is  rather  long,  and  the  bees  visit  it  very  freely.  Ap- 
parently, the  plant  yields  much  nectar,  although  it  is  seldom  present  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  test  its  real  value  as  a  honey  producer.  If  it  had 
sufficient  value  for  other  purposes  to  justify  its  cultivation,  it  would  prob- 
ably be   an   important  source  of  nectar. 


CATSCLAW,  see   Acacia. 

CAT'S  EAR  (Hypochaeris  radicata). 

Cat's  ear,  sometimes  called  California  dandelion,  is  abundant  west  of 
the  Cascade  Mountains  in  Washington  and  south  to  California.  It  is  a 
naturalized  European  weed  in  pastures  and  fields,  blooming  in  midsummer. 
According  to  H.  A.  Scullen,  it  supplies  considerable  nectar  in  Washington. 
It  is  amber  color  and  in  some  localities  darkens  the  fireweed  honey. 


64  AMERICAN  HOXEY   PLANTS 

CELASTRUS    Scandens,   see   Bittersweet. 


CELERY    (Apium   graveolens). 

The  blossoms  of  the  cultivated  celery  yield  nectar  abundantly,  and 
where  grown  for  seed,  it  is  a  valuable  source  of  honey.  In  the  seed  belt 
of  California   it  yields   well,   as   the   following  will   indicate: 

"I  saw  the  hives  stacked  five  or  six  high  and  on  opening  them 
we  found  them  jammed  full  of  honey;  in  fact,  the  bees  should  have  had 
room  long  before,  but  Mr.  Gear  had  had  difficulty  in  getting  help,  and 
the  bees  had  got  ahead  of  him.  The  colonies  were  so  crowded  that 
the  space  between  the  frames  and  the  tops  of  the  hives  were  built  full 
of  burr  combs.     All   this  honey  was   from   celery   and   parsnip.     *     *     * 

On  our  arrival  at  the  field  it  was   easy  J_ . '^__ 

to    see    that    there     was     honey    in    the 

blossoms.      In    the    sunlight    the    little 

drops    of   nectar   gleamed    like    myriads  ^ 

of     little     diamonds.     *     *     *     I    tasted  CfM^ 


some  of  the  raw  nectar  from  the  cel- 
ery. Sure  enough,  there  was  quite  a 
strong  suggestion  of  celery  flavor." — 
E.  R.  Root,  Gleanings,  Nov.,  1919,  page 
712. 

CENTAUREA. 

There  are  several  species  of  centaurea 
which  yield  nectar.  The  common  corn- 
flower of  the  gardens  (Centaurea  Cyanus), 
also  known  as  blue-bottle,  bluet,  ragged 
sailor  or  batchelor's  button,  is  a  good 
honey  plant.  The  bees  work  upon  it  from 
morning  till  night,  though  it  is  seldom  suf- 
ficiently abundant  to  be  important  as  a 
source  of  surplus.  Richter  lists  this  spe- 
cies from  California  as  commonly  culti- 
vated. He  also  lists  the  Napa  thistle,  or 
tacalote  (Centaureau  melitensis),  as  yield- 
ing some  honey  of  light  amber  color,  good 
flavor  and  fair  body.  This  species  is  known 
in  the  southeastern  States  as  Lombardy 
star  thistle.     (See  Star  Thistle.) 

CENTURY    PLANT    (Agave). 

The  agaves  are  an  important  group  of 
long-lived  perennial  plants  native  to  Trop- 
ical America,  Mexico  and,  to  some  extent, 
to  the  southwestern  United  States.  Each 
plant  has  a  cluster  of  numerous  fleshy 
leaves  and,  when  blooming,  a  tall  flower 
stalk.  There  are  at  least  five  species  na- 
tive to  the  United  States.  The  range  is 
southern    New    Mexico,   Arizona    and    Cali- 


4£-&9Bb 


Fig.  37.  The  century  plant  is 
slow  to  bloom,  but  is  a  strik- 
ing  sight   when   it   does   so. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  65 

fornia.     The  best  known  is  the  common  century  plant  (Agave  americana), 

an  introduced  species,  cultivated  for  ornament.  This  is  a  conspicuous 
hgure  of  ornamental  planting  in  southern   California. 

In  Mexico  some  species  of  agaves  furnish  fibre,  while  others  are  the 
source  of  pulque  and  mescal,  intoxicating  drinks  much  used  in  the  country 
below  the  Rio  Grande. 

The  plants  do  not  bloom  until  they  are  several  years  old.  The  flower 
stalks  grow  very  rapidly  and  reach  a  height  of  25  or  30  feet  within  a  few 
weeks'  time.  When  in  bloom  they  secrete  nectar  in  abundance,  and  the 
bees  swarm  over  them  in  great  numbers.  As  will  be  seen  by  the  illustra- 
tion, the  flower  stalks  support  innumerable  blossoms,  so  that  a  single 
plant  will  yield  a  considerable  amount  of  honey.  The  fact  that  the  plants 
are  nowhere  abundant  in  this  country,  together  with  the  long  period  which 
must  elapse  before  they  bloom,  makes  it  improbable  that  they  will  ever  be 
of  much  importance  to  American  beekeepers. 

CEPHALANTHUS,  see   Button   Bush. 
CHAM1SE,  see  Greasewood. 

CHAPMAN    HONEY    PLANT   (Echinops   sphoerocephalus). 

The  Chapman  honey  plant  was  introduced  from  France  about  1885. 
The  bee  journals  of  1886  and  1887  devote  a  large  amount  of  space  to  a  dis- 
cussion of  this  plant.  It  was  brought  prominently  to  the  attention  of 
American  beekeepers  by  Hiram  Chapman,  of  Versailles,  New  York,  who 
planted  about  three  acres  of  it  at  that  place.  He  made  such  glowing  re- 
ports of  the  plant  at  tin-  National  Beekeepers'  Convention  that  a  com- 
mittee of  prominent  men  was  appointed  to  visit  the  Chapman  home  and 
report  on  the  new  plant  at  the  convention  of  the  following  year.  They 
made  a  lengthy  and  very  favorable  report,  which  is  published  in  full  on 
page  28  of  the  American    Bee  Journal  for  January  5,  1887. 

Numerous  beekeepers  secured  seed,  and  so  attractive  did  the  plant 
prove  to  the  bees  that  favorable  reports  appeared  frequently  in  the 
columns  of  the  journals  for  the  next  few  years.  However,  the  great 
expectations  were  not  realized,  for  it  soon  disappeared,  and  is  seldom 
mentioned  in  current  literature.  The  following  quotation  from  Dr.  C.  C. 
Miller,  which  appeared  in  Cleanings,  in  December,  1918.  is  probably  a  cor- 
rect   estimate   of   the   value   of   the   plant  : 

"After  reading  the  British  Bee  Journal  of  September  26,  I  should 
have  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  secure  a  supply  of  seed  of  Echinops 
Sphoerocephalus,  if  I  had  no  previous  experience  with  the  plant.  No 
bee  plant  that  I  have  ever  grown  was  so  attractive  to  the  bees.  When- 
ever the  weather  was  favorable  the  heads  were  crowded.  I  have 
counted  fourteen  or  fifteen  bees  on  one  at  the   same  time.' 

This  is  the  Chapman  honey  plant  that  had  a  big  boom  in  this 
country  a  number  of  years  ago;  but  it  is  not  heard  of  now,  and  is  not 
included  among  the  honey  plants  in  the  bee  books.  Upon  its  introduc- 
tion I  planted  quite  a  patch  of  it,  and  like  Mr.  Harwood,  I  never  saw 
the  bees  so  thick  on  any  other  plant.  But  close  observation  showed 
that  the  bees  were  not  in  eager  haste  in  their  usual  way  when  getting 
a   big  yield,  but   were   in   large   part   idle.     It   looked   a   little   as   if   the 


66  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

plant  had  some  kind  of  stupefying  effect  on  them.  At  any  rate,  I 
should  not  take  the  trouble  to  plant  it  now,  if  land  and  seed  were  fur- 
nished free. 

CHAYOTE   CSechium  edule). 

Chayote  is  a  vegetable  of  the  squash  family,  commonly  grown  in  the 
American  Tropics.  It  is  found  in  Mexico,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  other 
countries  in  that  latitude.  There  has  been  some  discussion  of  the  plant  in 
the  bee  magazines  and  occasionally  the  plants  have  been  grown  in  Ameri- 
can gardens.  That  it  is  a  valuable  honey  plant  there  can  be  but  little 
doubt.  J.  J.  Siebert,  writing  from  Porto  Rico  to  the  American  Bee  Journal, 
says  that  it  is  all  that  it  is  claimed  to  be,  and  that  as  a  source  of  nectar  it 
has  only  one  rival,  the  banana,  blossoming  all  the  year  round.  The  follow- 
ing is  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,   Bulletin   No.  28: 

'As  in  other  vegetables  of  the  squash  family,  the  stamens  and  pis- 
tils are  in  separate  flowers,  pollination  taking  place  through  the 
agency  of  insects.  To  attract  these,  the  flowers  of  both  kinds,  but  es- 
pecially the  pistillate,  yield  abundant  nectar,  which  is  secreted  in 
ten  glands,  two  at  the  base  of  each  of  the  lobes  of  the  corolla.  In 
most  of  the  countries  into  which  it  has  been  introduced,  beekeeping 
has  not  been  a  regular  industry,  and  the  value  of  the  chayote  as  a 
source  of  honey  has  not  been  noticed,  but  the  reports  of  experimenters 
in  New  South  Wales  contain  very  emphatic  statements  on  the  subject: 

'When  the  plant  is  in  flower  I  have  noticed  that  the  vines  were 
swarming  with  bees,  and  as  flowers  are  scarce  in  the  autumn,  the  plant 
will  no  doubt  be  valuable  as  a  honey-producer. 

'The  plant,  which  spreads  over  a  large  area,  commenced  flowering 
at  the  close  of  the  year,  and  has  been  well  laden  with  mellifluous  blos- 
soms ever  since.  The  bees  are  extremely  fond  of  the  chocho,  and  with 
the  apiarist  the  newly-introduced  plant  must  become  a  strong  favor- 
ite.' 

"The  chayote  differs  from  many  cucurbitaceae  in  producing  numer- 
ous flowers  on  each  fertile  branch.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the 
flowers  of  this  family  are  rich  in  honey,  but  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  beekeeper  they  have  been  considered  of  little  importance,  because 
seldom  accessible  in  sufficient  amount,  though  in  the  United  States 
fields  are  recognized  as  good  bee  pastures.  The  chayote  seems  to  make 
up  by  numbers  what  the  flowers  lack  in  size,  so  that  the  yield  of  honey 
may  be  larger  than  in  related  plants.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  the 
fact  that  Sechium  is  a  perennial  bloomer  in  the  Tropics,  and  in  the  sub- 
tropical regions  has  a  very  long  season.  It  is  thus  possible  that  in  the 
regions  like  parts  of  Florida,  where  beekeeping  is  already  an  estab- 
lished industry,  the  honey-producing  qualities  of  the  chayote  may  be 
found  of  practical  account  in  connection  with  its  other  utilities." 

CHEROKEE  ROSE  (Rosa  laevigata). 

The  Cherokee  rose  is  found  from  the  Coast  Region  of  the  South  At- 
lantic States  westward  through  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi  and  Louisi- 
ana to  eastern  Texas.  It  occurs  also  in  California.  It  was  in  Alabama 
that  the  author  first  heard  it  mentioned  as  a  source  of  nectar.  Later  re- 
ports from  California  indicated  that  bees  sometimes  find  nectar  from  this 
source,  though  most  of  the  roses  yield  only  pollen.  H.  B.  Parks  states  that 
he  has  observed  the  bees  getting  honey  from  this  source,  and  M.  B.  Talley, 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


67 


of  Victoria,  Texas,  states  that  he  has  observed  the  bees  gathering  nectar 
from  it  in  Mississippi  and  also  at  Victoria.  It  is  probably  of  little  import- 
ance, unless  it  be  as  a  source  of  pollen. 

CHERRY    (Prunus   cerasus). 

The  cultivated  cherry  is  closely  related  to  the  plum  and  is  equally  at- 
tractive to  the  bees.  Both  bloom  at  about  the  same  time.  In  California 
the  cherry  is  reported  as  one  of  the  best  of  the  fruit  trees  for  honey  pro- 
duction. In  the  East  it  is  valued  principally  for  stimulating  early  brood- 
rearing. 

When  the  weather  is  warm  and  bright  during  its  period  of  bloom  a 
great  variety  of  insects  may  be  found  on  the  blossoms.  Bees  are  seldom 
strong  enough   to  store   surplus   from  cherry.     (See   also  Wild  Cherry. 


Fig.    3S.     Cherry    blossoms. 


CHESTNUT    (Castanea   dentata). 

The  chestnut  is  an  important  timber  tree  from  northern  New  England 
and  Ontario  to  Michigan  and  along  the  mountains  to  Georgia.  It  is  a  tall 
and  slender  tree  in  the  forests,  but  a  magnificent  spreading  shade  tree 
when  grown  with  sufficient  room.  It  sometimes  reaches  a  height  of  90 
to  100  feet. 

As  a  source  of  nectar  it  is  probably  nowhere  important,  though  it 
yields  pollen   in  June  or  July.     E.  E.  Hasty,  writing  in   the  American   Bee 


63 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


Journal,    from    Toledo,    Ohio,    (Sept.,    1906),    reports    that    there    the    bees 
roar  on  chestnut  bloom,  even  when  basswood  blooms  at  the  same  time. 

It   is   frequently   listed   as   a   source   of  honey,   but   the   author   can    find 
no  authoritative  records  of  surplus  stored  from   it. 


Bloom  of  China-tree 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


b9 


CHINABERRY,  see  Wild  China. 
CHINA  TREE   (Melia   azedarach). 

The  China  tree,  also  known  as  pride  of  India,  is  a  native  of  the  Far 
East,  probably  coming  from  China.  It  has  become  naturalized  in  the 
Southeastern  States  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  Texas.  It  is  found  as  far 
north  as  Arkansas  and  Virginia. 

H.   B.  Parks   reports   that   in   Texas    it    is    a    fairly  good  honey   plant, 


Fig.  40.     The  chinquapin. 


70  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

blooming  very  early  in   the   season.     On   account   of   its   early  blooming,   it 
is   principally  valuable   to   stimulate   early  brood   rearing. 

This  tree  should  not  be  confused  with  the  Wild  China,  which   see. 

CHINESE   SUMAC,  see  Varnish  Tree. 

CHINQUAPIN    (Castanea  pumila). 

The  chinquapin  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree  common  from  New  Jersey 
and  southern  Pennsylvania  southward  to  Missouri  and  Texas.  It  is  well 
known  to  the  beekeepers  in  parts  of  Alabama,  Georgia  and  north  Florida, 
where  it  flowers  in  May.  In  Arkansas,  it  is  a  large  tree,  reaching  a 
height  of  fifty   feet   in   some   cases. 

In  some  localities  beekeepers  report  good  crops  of  honey  from  chin- 
quapin, but  the  quality  is  inferior.  It  is  dark  and  strong,  with  a  bitter 
taste.  Some  use  it  for  feeding  to  replace  the  better  grades  of  honey  which 
may  be  taken  from  the  bees.  In  color  it  looks  like  New  Orleans  molasses, 
and  a  sample,  in  the  author's  collection  for  several  years,  shows  no  ten- 
dency to  granulation. 

CHITTAM,  see   Buckthorn. 
CHOCTAW   ROOT,  see  Dogbane. 
CHOKE  CHERRY,  see  Wild  Cherry. 

CHRISTMAS    BERRY,    or    CALIFORNIA    HOLLY    (Heteromeles    arbuti- 
folia). 

The  Christmas  berry  is  known  also  as  toy-on  or  tollon  berry,  as  well 
as  California  holly.  It  is  common  along  the  streams  and  on  the  mountain- 
sides of  California,  where  it  flowers  in  June  and  July.  It  has  white  flow- 
ers and  the  bright  red  berries  ripen  in  late  autumn.  The  berries,  accord- 
ing to  C.  D.  Stuart,  are  acid  and  slightly  astringent,  though  not  unpleas- 
ant. He  states  that  the  berries  were  eaten  by  the  Indians  as  a  kind  of 
salad,  and  that  a  wine-red  drink  is  sometimes  made  from  them  after  an 
old  Spanish-Californian  recipe.  The  plant  is  much  used  for  Christmas 
decoration  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

According  to  Richter,  the  plant  is  the  source  of  a  thick  amber  honey 
of  decided  flavor,  which  candies  with  a  coarse  grain,  within  two  or  three 
months  after  extraction.  He  reports  surplus  from  this  source  in  Monte- 
rey,   Colusa   and   Nevada   Counties,   California. 

Jepson  gives  the  range  as  "Throughout  the  coast  ranges  and  Sierra 
Nevada,  and  southward  to  southern  and  Lower  California.  Frequent 
along  streams  and  gulches  in  the  lower  hills,  and  also  abundant  on  stony 
slopes  at  middle  elevations,  especially  from  Napa  to  Humboldt  Counties. 

At  Visalia  the  author  heard  reports  of  an  average  of  a  case  per  colony 
of   surplus   honey   from   this   source   in   the   mountains. 

CITRUS   FRUITS,  see  Oranges,  Lemons,   Etc. 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


71 


CLEMATIS. 

The    white    clematis    is    commonly    known     by     the     name     of    virgin's 

bower,  but  also  has  several  other 
local  names,  such  as  love  vine, 
traveler's  joy  and  devil's  hair. 
Fig.  42  shows  the  delicate  white 
blossoms  and  the  leat,  and  Fig..  43 
shows  a  mass  of  vines  on  a  road- 
side  fence. 

The  range  of  the  plant  is  from 
Nova  Scotia  and  Ontario  west  to 
Lake  Winnipeg  and  Nebraska 
and  south  to  Louisiana  and  Flor- 
ida. It  may  be  expected  almost 
anywhere  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  It  is  a  slender  climbing 
vine  on  the  borders  of  woods, 
roadsides  and  hedgerows.  The 
blossoms  are  white  and  fragrant, 
blooming  in  midsummer.  It  is 
much  sought  by  the  bees,  and  ap- 
parently produces  considerable 
nectar.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the 
plant  is  anywhere  sufficiently 
abundant  to  make  an  appreciable 
difference  in  the  production  of 
the    hive. 

Richter,  in  his  "Honey  Plants 
of  California,"  reports  a  related 
species,  the  hill  clematis,  (Cle- 
matis ligusticifolia,  as  common  in  the  hilly  districts  almost  throughout 
California.  It  is  said  to  produce  "a  great  deal  of  pollen  and  probably  some 
honey,"  but  it  is  not  known  to  produce  surplus.  Common  also  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 


1          T 

^L 

i              1 

LU, 
P  f 

r  Hi* 

mW  II 

■k             !>K 

%>-jm 

k 

Fig. 


Blossom   ant 


white   clematis. 


CLEOME,   see   Rocky   Mountain   Bee   Plant. 


CLEOMELLA  (Cleomella  angustifola). 

The  Cleomella  is  very  similar  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  bee  plant,  or 
cleome.  The  flowers  are  small  and  yellow  and  the  plant  does  not  grow  so 
tall  as  the  cleome. 

An  Oklahoma  beekeeper  reports  as   follows  : 

"It  seems  to  be  a  remarkable  honey  plant.  It  was  in  bloom  for 
more  than  ten  weeks  during  the  dry  season,  and  bees  worked  upon  it 
freely  every  morning.  The  blossom  is  very  fragrant,  sweet,  yellow, 
and  is  at  the  branches.  It  keeps  crowding  out  a  new  growth  and 
blooming,  forming  small  purse-shaped  seed  pods  as  the  blossoms  drop. 
The  growth  is  much  like  sweet  clover  or  yellow  mustard,  but  forming 
a  larger  spreading  top.     Some  plants  grow  four  feet  tall  and  three  feet 


72 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


across  and  an  inch  through  at  the  butt.     It  is  an  annual,  and  no  stock 
will  eat  it."— M.  S.  Hubbell,  Helena,  Okla.     American  Bee  Journal. 
Cleomella  is  found  from  Nebraska  to  Utah  and  south   to  Texas. 

CLETHRA,  see  Pepperbush. 
CLIMBING  MILKWEED,  see  Bluevine. 

CLOVER  (Trifolium). 

The  clovers  are  by  far  the  most  important  American  honey  plants. 
If  we  include  the  closely  related  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover,  they  probably 
are  the  source  of  more   surplus   honey  than   all  the  other  plants   together. 


Fig  41.     The  Christmas  herry,   or  California  holly. 

They  are  to  be  found  in  nearly  every  part  of  America  and  yield  nectar 
more  freely  than  most  plants.  The  quality  of  clover  hone}'  is  of  the  best 
and  in  quantity  of  yield  it  ranks  high,  under  favorable  conditions.  If  the 
whole  group  was  to  be  removed,  honey  production  as  a  commercial  propo- 
sition would  decline  to  a  very  large  degree. 

Clover  seems  to  yield  most  heavily  in  the  northern  part  of  its  range 
and  gradually  declines  southward.  White  clover  is  the  most  important 
of  the  group.  Alsike  is  quite  as  valuable  where  equally  abundant.  The 
corolla  tubes  of  red  clover  are  usually  too  deep  for  the  honeybee  to  reach 
the  nectar,  but  occasionally  some  honey  is  secured  from  this  source.  (See 
Red  Clover).  Each  of  the  clovers  is  considered  separately.  (See  White 
Clover,  Alsike,  etc.) 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


73 


COCKLEBUR   (Xanthium  canadense). 

The  cocklebur  is  a  coarse  weed,  common  in  fields  and  waste  places 
from  Louisiana.  In  Texas,  Scholl  lists  the  plant  as  a  source  of  pollen  in 
clinging  to  clothing  and  to  the  hairs  of  horses  and  cattle. 

There  is  an  occasional  report  of  honey  from  this  source,  especially 
from  Louisiana.  In  Texas,  Scholl  lists  the  plant  as  a  source  of  pollen  in 
late  fall. 


Fig.    J.:.      White  clematis  mi  a  roadside   fence. 
COFFEE  BERRY,  see  Buckthorn. 

COLIMA   (Xanthoxylum   pterota). 

Colima  is  a  species  of  prickly  ash  common  to  the  valley  of  the  lower 
Rio  Grande  River.  It  is  a  small  shrub  with  zigzag  branches,  armed  with 
short     curved  thorns.     The  flowers  are  in  axillary  clusters. 

Colima  is  reported  as  yielding  but  a  light  flow,  of  principal  value  for 
stimulative  purposes.  At  AI  at  his.  Texas.  \Ym.  Atchley  reports  that  he  had 
a  good  surplus  flow  from  colima  in  1900.  The  honey  was  golden  and  very 
thick,  weighing  I2j4  pounds  to  the  gallon.  The  flavor  was  good.  Although 
he  kept  bees  in  that  vicinity  for  a  number  of  years  he  secured  surplus 
from   Colima   but   the   one   time.     (See   also   Prickly  Ash). 


COLORADO— Honey  Plants   of. 

Practically  all  surplus  is  secured  from  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover,  with 
an  occasional  crop  from  cleome.  The  rosin  weed  (Grindelia  squarrosa) 
yields    considerable    honey    of    low   grade   which    often    spoils    the    grade   of 


74 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


the  white  honey  by  being  mixed  in  the  supers.  Narcissus,  parsley  and 
prairie  clover  are  prairie  plants  which  attract  the  bees  freely.  Wild  onion 
yields  some  honey.  Dandelion  and  fruit  bloom  are  important  for  spring 
brood  rearing  and  canteloupes  yield  some  surplus  in  the  Rock  Ford  region. 


Fig.  44.     A  white  clover  field  in  Iowa. 

Sunflowers,  mentzelia,  lupines  and  loco  weeds  add  something  to  the  sum 
total  brought  to  the  hives.  The  white  clematis  is  very  common  along  the 
streams,  as  are  willows.  Wild  currant  is  common  in  the  mountain  can- 
yons. Gaura  coccinea,  the  red  gaura  or  ragged  lady,  is  much  sought  by 
the  bees  for  both  honey  and  pollen.  Oreocarya  is  a  desert  plant  which 
yields  surplus,  but  which  is  rapidly  disappearing  through  cultivation  of 
the  land  on  which  it  grows. 

COLUMBO.  see  Monument  Plant. 


COMA    (Bumelia    lycioides). 

Coma  is  the  Mexican  name  for  southern  buckthorn  (Bumelia  lycio- 
ides), which  is  found  from  Florida  north  to  Virginia  and  west  to  Texas. 
It  is  also  known  as  ironwood.  It  is  a  spiny  shrub  with  flowers  in  dense 
clusters.  In  South  Texas  it  is  also  known  as  coma  and  is  frequently  re- 
ported as  an  important  source  of  honey.  It  blooms  there  from  October 
to  February  and  produces  nectar  freely.  At  Rio  Hondo,  in  the  lower  Rio 
Grande  Valley,  beekeepers  reported  to  the  author  that  a  flowof  six  weeks 
from  coma,  from  September  to  November,  was  common,  and  that  swarms 
issuing  as  late  as  December  had  gathered  sufficient  honey  from  this  source 
to  carry  them  through.     The  honey  is  said  to  be  light  amber  in  color  and 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


75 


of  good  quality.     The  flow  varies  greatly,  depending  upon  the  rains.     (See 
also  Gum-elastic.) 

CONE  FLOWER  (Rudbeckia). 

The  cone  flowers,  also  called  golden  glow,  are  not  often  mentioned  as 
honey  plants,  yet  the  bees  visit  them  freely  and  apparently  they  are  the 
source  of  some  nectar.  The  plants  are  widely  distributed  east  of  the 
Missouri  River  and  are  probably  of  limited  local  importance. 


Coma  in  bloom.     This  species   (Bumclia  angustifolia)   is  abundant  from  Pearsall,  Texas,  to  the 
Rio  Grande  River,  blooming  from  October  to  February,  and  is  the  best  of  the  group. 


CONNECTICUT— Honey   Sources    of. 

The  clovers,  alsike  and  white  clover,  occur  all  over  Connecticut  and  yield 
nectar  freely.    Goldenrod  and  asters  are  also  important.     Buckwheat,  wild 


76  AMERICAN  HOXEY   PLANTS 

raspberry  and  milkweeds  all  yield  surplus  under  favorable  conditions. 
Basswood,  locust  maple  and  clethra  are  among  the  valuable  trees  and 
shrubs.  Fruit  bloom,  willow,  etc.,  are  important  in  early  spring.  Some 
honey  from  tobacco  is  reported  in   Connecticut. 


f  the   cotton   plant.      (U.    S.    Department   of   Agriculture.) 


CORAL  BEAN   or  FRIJOLILLO  (Sophora  secundiflora). 

The  coral  bean  is  a  small  tree  common  along  the  streams  of  Texas 
and  Xew  Mexico,  and  southward  to  the  interior  of  Mexico.  The  Mexicans 
call  it  frijolillo.  The  beans  are  said  by  Coulter  to  be  used  by  the  Indians 
as  an  intoxicant.    The  beans  are  round  and  red  and  as  large  as  small  mar- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


77 


bles.  They  contain  a  powerful  poisonous  alkaloid.  Some  beekeepers  have 
expressed  a  fear  that  the  honey  might  be  poisonous  to  the  bees,  though 
apparently  there  is  little  grounds  for  such  fear.  The  tree  is  abundant 
aiong  the  Nueces  River  in  the  shade  of  larger  timber  and  was  yielding 
nectar  very  freely  at  the  time  of  the  author's  visit  to  that  section  on 
March  10,  1918.  There  had  been  a  long  dearth  of  nectar  and  the  bees  were 
extremely  short  of  both  honey  and  pollen.  The  new  nectar  was  coming  in 
in  considerable  quantity  and  the  honey  stored  had  a  peculiar  flavor.  The 
tree  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  vicinity  of  Matagorda  Bay. 


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Fig.   46.     Honey  plant   regions  of  Texas. 
CORAL  BERRY,  see  Indian  Currant. 
CORAL  SUMAC,  see  Poisonwood. 
CORN,  see   Indian   Corn. 
CORNEL,  see  Dogwood. 
CORN-ITCH,  see  Cow-itch. 

COTTON    (Gossypium    herbaceum). 

Although  the  cotton  plant  is  found  growing  wild  in  many  warm  coun- 
tries, in  the  United  States  it  is  known  only  as  a  staple  field  crop.     It  was 


78  AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 

brought  to  this  country  as  earl}-  as  1621,  and  has  been  the  most  important 
plant  grown  on  southern  plantations  since  the  early  development  of  the 
country. 

The  plant  thrives  in  a  warm  and  humid  climate,  and  needs  five  to  six 
months  of  warm  weather.  However,  it  is  grown  successfully  under  semi- 
arid  conditions  in  parts  of  Texas  and  other  Southern  States.  The  so-called 
cotton  belt  extends  from  the  nortwhest  corner  of  Texas  south  to  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  east  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  A  limited  acreage  is  grown  in 
California,  but,  excepting  very  restricted  areas,  it  is  not  important  outside 
the  territory  mentioned.  Texas,  Mississippi,  Alabama  and  Georgia  are 
perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  cotton-growing  States.  The  Carolinas, 
Louisiana  and  Oklahoma  also  grow  it  in   large  areas. 

Honey  production  reaches  its  highest  development  in  localities  where 
good  nectar-bearing  plants  are  grown  in  large  acreage.  Hence  we  find 
beekeeping  thriving  in  dairy  communities,  where  alsike  and  white  clover 
are  grown  abundantly.  We  also  find  the  beekeepers  prosperous  where 
alfalfa  is  an  important  crop.  In  the  Southern  States,  cotton  is  the  one 
field  crop  grown  on  a  sufficient  scale  to  offer  ideal  conditions  for  the  bee- 
keeper. However,  cotton  is  fickle  in  its  behavior,  and  cannot  always  be 
depended  upon  to  produce  nectar,  no  matter  how  abundant  the  crop.  In 
some  cotton-growing  districts  the  beekeepers  swear  by  cotton,  while  in 
other  localities  they  declare  that  it  is  of  little  value.  The  character  of  the 
soil  seems  to  be  a  very  important  factor  in  the  secretion  of  nectar  by  this 
plant.  The  vigor  of  the  growth  and  the  amount  of  available  plant  food 
in  the  soil  are  also  important.  Reports  from  different  sections  indicate 
that  the  quality  of  the  honey  varies  in  different  sections. 

W.  D.  Null,  of  Demopolis,  Ala,  wrote  to  the  author  as  follows  : 

"This,  you  know,  was  for  sixty  years  the  heaviest  cotton-growing 
section  in  the  nation.  Bees  will  not  work  cotton  if  they  can  work 
anything  else,  even  bitterweed.  It  yields  honey  of  very  poor  quality, 
and  never  very  much,  some  years  none  at  all.  Weather  conditions 
must  be  just  right,  and  that  don't  come  often.  The  honey  is  the  same 
grade  as  the  most  honeydews." 

In  contrast,  we  find  the  following  report  of  good  honey  and  abundant 
yield   in  American   Bee  Journal   for   1907,   page  267: 

"Cotton  blossoms  furnish  a  great  deal  of  excellent  honey,  and  the 
theory  that  it  explodes  or  ferments  is  all  bosh.  It  makes  an  excellent 
rich  honey,  oily,  and  it  is  not  liked  so  well  by  some  until  they  get  used 
to  it." — Jules   Belknap,  M.  D.,  Sulphur  Springs,  Ark. 

When  the  writer  made  his  first  trip  through  Georgia  he  was  much  puz- 
zled by  the  different  reports  of  apparently  good  observers  in  different 
parts  of  the  State.  The  matter  was  finally  explained  by  a  beekeeper  who 
had  lived  in  different  localities,  by  the  variation  in  behavior  of  the  plant 
under  different  conditions.  There  is  perhaps  no  important  honey  plant 
which  varies  so  much,  in  the  quality  of  its  nectar,  as  does  cotton.  The 
poor  quality  in  some  places  can  doubtless  be  explained  by  the  fact  that 
the  flow  is  not  abundant,  and  is  mixed  with  other  low-grade  stores.  How- 
ever, honeydew  is  also  sometimes  reported  from  the  plant  itself. 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS  79 

"Sometimes,  during  a  damp  spell,  the  cotton  gets  covered  with  vast 
numbers  of  aphis,  and  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves  will  first  get  gummy 
and  then  will  even  drip  a  kind  of  dirty-looking  sweet  fluid.  If  there  is 
anything  else  on  hand  the  bees  will  not  touch  it." — W.  H.  Alder,  Calla- 
han County,  Texas,  page  334,  American   Bee  Journal,  1899. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  would  make  a  poor  product,  and  it  is 
not  improbable  that  honeydew  is  sometimes  secured  from  cotton  in  lo- 
calities where  it  seldom  yields  nectar.  The  secretion  is  apparently  depend- 
ent far  more  upon  soil  than  upon  any  other  condition.  Upon  the  black, 
wavy  lands  of  Texas  and  upon  other  soils,  it  reaches  its  highest  develop- 
ment. The  boundary  of  the  belt,  where  cotton  yields  freely  and  where  it 
does  not,  is  very  marked  in  Texas.  North  of  the  escarpment  which  runs 
across  Bexar  County,  Texas,  near  San  Antonio,  it  is  an  important  source. 
South  of  that  line  few  beekeepers  report  it  as  dependable.  North  of  this 
line  the  soil  is  black  and  heavy;  south  it  is  sandy.  Wherever  the  writer 
has  found  beekeepers  on  sandy  soil,  they  have  reported  the  yield  from 
cotton  as  uncertain;  while  on  the  heavy  soils  they  report  it  as  fairly  con- 
stant, with  suitable  weather  conditions.  The  map  shown  herewith,  Fig  46, 
roughly  outlines  the  heavy  section  where  honey  from  cotton  is  important 
in  Texas.  Cotton  is  grown  east,  south  and,  to  some  extent,  west  of  that 
line.  In  east  Texas  cotton  is  reported  as  yielding  well  on  river  bottom 
lands  and  but  little  on  the  hills.  In  the  southern  sections,  and  also  in  other 
States,  an  occasional  crop  is  reported  where  it  does  not  yield  regularly: 

"We  had  a  very  dry,  sultry  spell  here  the  latter  part  of  last  Au- 
gust, and  up  to  that  time  the  bees  were  living  from  hand  to  mouth. 
All  at  once  they  began  storing  from  the  cotton  bloom,  though  it  looked 
as  though  cotton  was  going  to  die  in  the  fields  from  drought  and  heat, 
yet  it  yielded  until  the  bees  had  stored  from  30  to  60  pounds  per  col- 
only." — J.  J.  Wilder,  Cordele,  Ga.,  American  Bee  Journal,  page  141,  1906. 
On  suitable  soils  it  is  one  of  the  most  dependable  sources  of  nectar: 

"The  apiarist  who  has  his  bees  located  within  range  of  extensive 
cotton  areas  can  count  on  at  least  an  average  crop  year  after  year, 
with  more  certainty  than  many  of  the  other  numerous  honey  yielders 
which  we  have." — Louis  Scholl,  page  652,  Gleanings,  1912. 

"My  main  sources  for  surplus  are  mesquite  trees,  the  cotton 
fields  being  the  second  of  importance  in  the  central  and  northern  parts 
of  the  State,  or  throughout  the  black  land  region.  On  sandy  or  light 
soil   cotton   yields   very  little  honey.     *     *     * 

"The  yield  is  good,  averaging  about  73  pounds  of  bulk  comb  honey 
per  year.  One  year  it  was  over  100  pounds.  Honey  from  cotton  is  very 
light  in  color,  the  comb  very  white,  and  of  excellent  flavor  when  well 
ripened.  As  soon  as  cool  weather  sets  in  this  honey  fairly  draws  out 
in  long  strings,  when  handled  with  a  spoon." — Gleanings,  page  1313, 
1907. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  cotton  honey  is  of  good  quality,  at 
least  in  some  localities  Samples  said  to  be  from  cotton  from  Georgia, 
are  strong  and  of  rather  poor  quality,  while  cotton  honey  received  from 
Texas  is  light  in  color,  of  mild  and  rather  pleasing  flavor.  The  honey 
from  Cotton  granulates  very  quickly.  That  produced  in  the  Southeastern 
States  also  has  the  effect  of  bursting  the  containers,  possibly  from  the 
effects  of  fermentation.     The  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  evidently  has  a 


80  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

marked  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  honey  from  this  plant.     The  following 
reports   indicate   the   quality : 

'As  to  the  quality  of  cotton  honey,  I  can  say  from  my  own  experi- 
ence, that  it  varies  in  color  from  light  amber  to  almost  water  white. 
While  I  do  not  consider  it  equal  to  white  clover  in  flavor,  it  is  superior 
to  basswood.  *  *  *  The  flow  increases  toward  the  last  of  the  sea- 
son, and  if  we  can  get  two  weeks  of  nice  weather  after  frost  it 
amounts  to  a  considerable  increase  in  the  crop." — J.  D.  Yancey,  Hunt 
County,  Texas.     Gleanings,  page  162,  1910. 

"It  did  well  on  our  rich  bottom  land  and  yielded  a  fair  crop  of  the 
finest  honey  it  was  ever  my  pleasure  to  see.  It  was  so  thick  that  it 
was  almost  impossible  to  extract  it,  and  entirely  out  of  the  question  to 
strain  it  through  a  single  thickness  of  cheese-cloth.  It  was  light  in 
codor,  mild  in  flavor,  and  very  heavy,  and  in  my  opinion  superior  to 
any  honey  ever  shipped  to  this  locality,  not  excepting  huijilla.  The 
long  drought  and  consequent  absence  of  all  other  bloom,  enabled  us 
to  get  a  purer  cotton  honey  than  we  had  ever  been  able  to  get  before. 
Again,  in  the  late  fall,  when  the  weather  began  to  get  cool,  our  cotton 
took  a  second  growth,  soon  blooming  profusely,  and  by  accident  we 
got  also  a  fair  fall  crop." — O.  Saunders,  Trenton,  Texas.  Page  734, 
Gleanings,  1910. 

One  great  advantage  of  the  cotton  flow  is  its  long  continuation.  In 
Texas  it  begins  to  bloom  in  May  or  June,  and  the  bees  work  it  steadily 
until  late  fall,  often  November.  Extra  cultivation  or  fertilization  of  the 
soil  increases  the  vigor  of  the  plant  and  the  nectar  flow  is  increased  ac- 
cordingly : 

"I  can  remember  when  the  bees  gathered  only  enough  nectar  from 
it  to  stimulate  brood  rearing,  and  now  we  get  from  one  to  three  supers 
of  surplus  from  this  source  alone.  *  *  *  On  land  where  we  used 
to  make  a  bale  of  cotton  to  4  or  5  acres,  now  we  make  1  to  2  bales  per 
acre,  using  high  grades  of  commercial  fertilizer  and  more  prolific 
varieties  of  the  plant.  It  yields  more  where  it  grows  best,  and  of  a 
much  longer  duration."— J.  J.  Wilder,  Cordele,  Ga.  Page  237,  American 
Bee  Journal,  1911. 

Bees  get  nectar  not  only  from  the  cotton  blossoms,  but  from  extra 
floral  nectaries  as  well.  At  times  almost  entirely,  and  to  gather  freely 
they  seem  to  neglect  the  blossoms  for  the  extra-floral  nectaries.  Some 
of  these  are  located  under  the  flower  and  begin  to  secrete  nectar  before 
the  blossoms  open.  Others  are  located  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves, 
and  vary  from  one  to  three  on  each  leaf.  When  atmospheric  conditions 
are  favorable,  these  glands  secrete  abundantly  and  the  nectar  gathers  in 
drops.  At  times  it  is  so  abundant  that  the  men  cultivating  get  their 
clothes  saturated  with  the  nectar,  from  the  brushing  of  the  leaves  against 
them.  Later  in  the  day  the  heat  of  the  sun  evaporates  most  of  the  moist- 
ure, leaving  the  clothing  sticky.  In  hot  and  dry  weather  the  flow  is  on  in 
the  morning  and  again  in  the  evening,  while  in  cloudy  or  damp  weather 
it  lasts  all  day. 

When  first  gathered,  the  honey  is  said  to  be  very  thin  and  clear,  with 
a  strong  and  nauseating  taste,  resembling  the  taste  of  the  plant  itself. 
As  the  moisture  is  evaporated  and  the  nectar  ripens  in  the  hive  this  dis- 
agreeable taste  is  lost  to  a  large  extent.  During  a  heavy  flow  a  strong 
odor  is  frequently  present  in  the  apiary,  which  can  be  noticed  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  hives.     Scholl  compares  this  odor  to  that  of  crushed  cot- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  81 

ton  leaves.  He  reports  that  at  times  it  becomes  so  strong  as  to  have  a 
sickening  effect  on  the  apiarist,  even  interfering  with  his  work,  on 
calm  days. 

The  heaviest  flows  come  from  rank-growing  plants  on  rich  soils, 
during  warm  and  wet  weather.  At  such  times  the  honey  is  lighter  in  color 
and  superior  in  quality,  while  the  honey  stored  from  plants  growing  on 
light'  soils  during  dry  weather   is   darker  and  strong  in  taste. 

Pollen  from  the  cotton  plant  is  white  in  color,  and  is  produced  in 
abundance  from  the  large  bell-shaped  flowers.  When  the  bloom  first 
opens  it  is  white,  later  turning  pink. 

COTTON -GUM,  see  Tupelo. 
COTTONWOOD,  see  Aspen. 

COW-ITCH  (Cissus  incisa). 

The  cow-itch  is  a  climbing  vine  found  from  the  coast  of  Florida  to 
western  Texas  and  north  to  southern  Arkansas.  In  south  Texas  it  is 
called  "yerba  del  buey,"  according  to  Coulter. 

Scholl  states  that  it  "yields  sufficiently  to  keep  the  bees  out  of  mis- 
chief during  a  dearth,  and  giving  surplus  when  abundant."  At  Buffalo 
and  Palestine,  Texas,  the  author  found  reports  to  the  effect  that  cow- 
itch  was  a  heavy  yielder  of  nectar,  bees  beginning  on  it  as  soon  as  the 
basswood  bloom  closed.  It  blooms  from  June  till  October,  with  fruit  in 
all  stages.  The  honey  was  reported  to  be  light  amber  in  color  and  of 
good  flavor.  R.  A.  Nestor  reported  that  he  had  secured  as  high  as  35  to 
40  pounds  of  surplus  per  colony  from  this  source  mixed  with  partridge 
pea.     It   is   also   called   corn-itch. 


COWPEA  (Vigna  sinensis). 

The  cowpea  is  widely  cultivated  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the  old 
world  and  in  our  own  Southern  States.  It  is  grown  for  forage  and  for 
green  manure.  The  plant  is  more  closely  related  to  the  beans  than  to  the 
peas. 

R.  A.  Nestor  reports  that  it  yields  freely  in  east  Texas,  and  where 
planted  in  sufficient  acreage  yields  surplus.  The  honey  is  very  dark  in 
color,  but  of  mild  flavor,  according  to  his  report. 

The  nectar  from  cowpeas  is  secreted  by  extra  floral  nectaries  and 
beekeepers  are  often  mystified  because  the  bees  are  working  at  the 
"joints"  instead  of  on  the  flowers.  Some  report  that  bees  gather  nectar 
from  the  flowers,  also. 

The   following  reports   indicate   the   value   in   different   localities: 

"There  is  no  finer  honey  plant  than  the  cowpea,  while  it  lasts,  but 

it  blooms  only  about  a  week.     During  this  time,  if  the  weather  is  fair, 

the   bees   swarm   over   the   fields   from   early   morn    till   dewey   eve." — J. 

D.  Rowan,  Tupelo,  Miss.     Gleanings,  Sept.  15,  1909. 

"The   cowpea   is   one   of   our   most   abundant    sources   of   honey   for 

late  summer.     The  crop  is  planted  here  from  May  1  to  August  1,  and 

furnishes  nectar  through  a  considerable  period  of  otherwise  scarcity. 


S2 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Unlike  other  plants,  the  stems,  and  not  the  blossoms,  secrete  the 
nectar  as  the  young  pods  are  forming.  These  the  bees  work  upon 
excessively.  The  honey  is  of  good  body,  thick,  deep,  approaching 
dark  yellow  in  color,  and  of  strong  taste  like  that  of  tulip-poplar,  only 
stronger,  with  a  somewhat  slight,  wild-green-bean-like  flavor." — C.  C. 
Gettys,  Hollis,  N.  C.     Gleanings,  Sept.  14,  1909. 

"A  small  patch  of  peas  was  covered  with  bees  from  morning  till 
night.  Nearly  all  of  them  were  working  on  the  stalks,  as  usual;  but 
here  and  there  I  saw  a  few  Italians  pushing  their  tongues  down  into 
the  blossoms.  I  have  never  noticed  any  pollen  from  the  field  peas." — 
Mrs.  Ameda   Ellis,   Fremont,   Mo.     Gleanings,  June    1,   1910. 

"The  peas  bloom  when  there  is  a  honey  dearth  and  the  bees  gather 
honey  from  them.  However,  I  notice  they  do  not  work  on  them  much 
if  there  is  a  better  honey  plant  blooming  at  the  same  time.  My  bees 
get  a  good  deal  of  nice  honey  from  them." — G  H.  Latham,  Jr.,  Rapidan, 
Va.     Gleanings,  May  15,  1910. 


Fig.   47.     Crocus  blossoms  are  among  the  first  to  furnish  pollen  in  spring. 


COYOTE  WEED,  see  Turkey  Mullein. 


CRAB  APPLE  (Malus). 

There  are  several  species  of  wild  crab  apples  native  to  America.  The 
fruit  is  small  and  sour  and  of  little  value.  The  blossoms  are  rose  colored 
and  very  fragrant,  making  the  tree  worthy  of  cultivation  as  an  ornamen- 
tal.    As  a  source  of  honey  the  wild  crab  apple  ranks  with  the  cultivated 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  83 

apple  and  other  fruit  trees.  The  blossoms  appear  from  March  to  May  and 
serve  to  stimulate  spring  brood  rearing,  though  where  abundant,  strong 
colonies  may  gather  some  surplus. 

The  southern  crab  apple  (Malus  angustifolia)  occurs  in  open  woods 
from  southern  Pennsylvania  south  to  Florida  and  west  to  Louisiana  and 
Missouri. 

The  American  crab  apple  (Malus  coronaria)  is  common  from  eastern 
Canada  to  Michigan  and  south  to  Alabama  and  South  Carolina.  It  is  a 
small  tree  and  often  grows  in  dense  thickets,  where  it  furnishes  ideal  bee 
pasturage. 

The  Soulard  crab  apple  (Malus  soulardi)  is  much  like  the  American 
crab  apple  in  tree  and  Mower,  but  has  a  larger  fruit,  which  leads  some 
authors  to  regard  it  as  a  hybrid  between  the  cultivated  apple  and  a  na- 
tive species.  It  is  sometimes  cultivated  for  its  fruit,  which  is  used  as  a 
substitute  for  quince.  It  occurs  in  the  wild  state  from  Minnesota  to  Texas, 
but   not  very  common. 

The  Oregon  crab  apple  (Malus  diversifolia,  is  a  native  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  from  Alaska  through  Western  Canada  south  to  California.  The 
fruit  was  formerly  dried  by  the  Indians  for  winter  use. 

All  the  wild  crab  apples  are  valuable  sources  of  nectar,  though  the 
principal   value    is    to    stimulate    early   brood   rearing. 

CRIMSON   CLOVER   (Trifolium   incarnatum). 

Crimson  clover  is  grown  in  the  Southern  States,  but  is  not  hardy  in 
the  North.  It  is  an  earlier  bloomer  than  the  other  clovers.  The  blossoms 
are  more  showy  than  either  alsike  or  red  clover.  The  plant  is  an  annual, 
and  must  be  resown  to  perpetuate  a  field. 

The  honey  yield  is  reported  to  be  good  and  the  quality  similar  to  that 
of  the  other  clovers.  It  is  nowhere  grown  on  the  scale  of  the  others,  so 
is  not  so  well  known  as  a  source  of  honey. 

Bonnier  gives  it  third  rank  as  a  honey  yielder,  while  the  British  Bee 
Journal  states  that  it  is  about  on  a  par  with  buckwheat,  and  that  neither 
is  satisfactory  when  honey  of  later  yield  is  worked  for. 

Niswonger  lists  it  as  a  very  important  plant  in  Kentucky,  and  states 
that  the  honey  is  of  a  very  light  yellow  color  of  good  quality. 

CROCUS. 

A  group  of  early  spring  flowers  native  to  the  Mediterranean  region 
of  Europe,  widely  cultivated  in  gardens.  Among  the  first  flowers  to  bloom, 
they  are  very  attractive  to  the  bees,  as  shown  in  Fig.  47. 

CROTON    (Croton). 

Scholl  lists  four  species  of  croton  as  yielding  pollen  and  nectar  in 
Texas,  though  none  of  them  are  of  much  importance.  Richter  states  that 
the  bees  visit  the  small  blossoms  of  Croton  californicus  in  large  numbers. 
The  author  can  find  no  records  which  indicate  that  the  plants  are  of  spe- 
cial value  anywhere. 


84 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


CROWNBEARD    (Verbesina). 

There  are  several  species  of 
this  plant,  some  of  which  are  very 
attractive  to  the  bees.  They  may 
be  found  in  the  borders  of  open 
woodlands  and  partially  shaded 
situations  of  the  region  east  of 
the  Missouri  River.  Where  suffi- 
ciently abundant  the  crownbeard 
is  the  source  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  nectar.  A  coarse 
weed,  growing  four  to  eight  feet 
tall,  with  winged  stems  and  yel- 
low, or  sometimes  white,  blos- 
soms. 

CUCUMBER    (Cucumis    sativus). 

The  cucumber  is  dependent 
upon  bees  for  pollination  of  the 
blossoms.  The  flowers  are  imper- 
fect, the  male  organs  being  con- 
tained in  one  flower  while  the  fe- 
male organs  are  in  another.  For 
this  reason  it  is  necessary  that 
insects  carry  the  pollen  fron  the 
staminate  blossoms  to  the  pistillate  ones.  Where  pickles  have  been 
grown  under  glass,  they  have  proved  unfruitful  until  bees  are  given  access 
to  the  bloom.  Formerly  the  pickle  growers  fertilized  the  blossoms  by 
hand  to  some  extent.  This  was  very  laborious.  According  to  B.  N.  Gates 
(In  3rd  Report  Iowa  Bee  Inspector),  one  grower  has  forty  acres  under 
glass  in  Massachusetts  and  the  industry  requires  about  three  thousand 
colonies  of  bees  annually  to  serve  in  the  cucumber  greenhouses. 

In  some  sections,  cucumbers  are  grown  extensively  for  pickles.  At 
Marengo,  111.,  Doctor  Miller  reports  that  about  600  acres  are  planted  to 
pickles.  He  reports  that,  whereas  he  formerly  had  no  fall  flow,  his  bees 
now  gather  some  fall  crop,  part  of  it  evidently  from  cucumbers.  There 
are  numerous  localities  where  cucumbers  are  of  some  importance  to  the 
beekeeper.  Lovell  states  that  the  honey  is  pale  yellow  or  amber  and  has 
at  first  a  rather  strong  flavor,  which  largely  disappears   in  time. 


Fig. 


48.     The   crownbeard   is  a   favorite   of 
the  bees. 


CUP   PLANT   (Silphium  perfoliatum). 

Cup  plant,  also  called  rosin  weed,  is  a  common  square-stemmed  plant 
with  leaves  grown  together  at  the  base  forming  a  cup.  It  grows  from 
four  to  eight  feet  high  and  is  abundant  on  rich  lands,  along  streams  and 
in  woodside  borders,  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  It  produces  numerous  large 
yellow  flowers  and,  where  plentiful,  furnishes  considerable  forage  for  the 
bees.     It  is  probably  seldom  important  as  a  source  of  surplus. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


85 


CULVER'S  ROOT  (Veronica  virginica). 

The  Culver's  root  is  found  from  New  England  and  Ontario  to  Mani- 
toba and  southward  to  Arkansas  and  Georgia.  There  are  reports  to  the 
effect  that  the  bees  fairly  swarm  on  this  plant,  but  apparently  it  is  not  of 
much  importnce  to  the  beekeeper. 


Fig.  49.     The  cup  plant. 
CURRANT   (Ribes). 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  cultivated  garden  currant  and  many 
species  of  the  wild  currants  which  are  valuable  sources  of  nectar.  There 
are  at  least  seven  species  of  wild  currant  native  to  New  Mexico.  It  is 
probable  that  some  species  of  wild  currants  are  to  be  found  in  every  State 
where  bees  are  kept.  In  the  vicinity  of  large  plantings  of  cultivated  cur- 
rants they  are  an  important  source  of  nectar,  but  generally  speaking,  they 
are  a  minor  source  and  of  chief  value  for  pollen  and  for  stimulating  early 
brood  rearing  along  with  most  other  fruits. 
CYNOGLOSSUM,  see  Hound's  Tongue. 


AMERICAN  HOXEY   PLANTS 


D 


DAHOON, 


Holly. 


DANDELION   (Taraxacum  officinale). 

The  dandelion  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  plants  in  America. 
Originally  introduced  from  Europe,  it  has  been  naturalized  over  practi- 
cally the  entire  continent.  As  each  plant  will  produce  hundreds  of  seeds, 
which  are  borne  for  long  distances  on  the  wind,  its  wide  distribution  is 
not  surprising.  The  plant  is  sometimes  used  for  medicinal  purposes,  serv- 
ing as  a  mild  laxative  and  tonic.     The   tender   shoots   are  very  popular  as 


Fig.   50.     The  much  despised  dandelion  is  a  valuable  source  of  nectar. 


a  table  delicacy  in  early  spring,  with  those  who  are  fond  of  greens.  The 
bright  yellow  flowers  are  very  showy,  and  if  the  plant  was  not  so  abund- 
ant, would  be  considered  attractive.  The  warfare  against  the  dandelion  is 
as  relentless  and  as  continuous  as  the  campaign  against  the  house  fly. 
Little  is  to  be  accomplished  by  digging  the  plants  from  one's  own  lawn, 
when  a  whole  pastureful  are  going  to  seed  a  mile  or  two  away. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  87 

The  beekeeper  has  little  to  complain  of  from  these  weeds,  as  there 
is  nothing  of  greater  value  during  the  short  period  of  bloom.  While  the 
honey  gathered  from  dandelions  is  dark  and  strong,  most  of  it  will  be 
consumed  for  brood  rearing.  Occasionally  a  small  surplus  will  be  se- 
cured from  this  source,  but  it  blooms  so  early  that  surplus  is  unusual. 
Large  quantities  of  pollen  as  well  as  nectar  are  produced,  so  that  a  large 
acreage  of  dandelions  within  reach  of  the  apiary  is  much  to  be  desired. 
Fig.  50  shows  the  plant  as  it  appears  during  the  period  of  bloom,  with 
blossoms  and  unopened  buds. 

Hon.  Eugene  Secor,  the  beekeeper's  poet,  has  written  a  number  of 
things  regarding  the  intimate  relation  existing  between  bees  and  flowers, 
and  for  one  of  these,  the  dandelion  furnished  the  inspiration: 

"Here's  a  bee,  my  children  see! 
Gathering  sweets  for  you  and  me, 
On  Sir  Dandy  Lion's  crown; 
She  is  yellow  that  was  brown, 
Yellow   with    the   golden   dust 
Lent  to  her  in   solemn   trust; 
Blossoms   bart'ring  gold  for  gold. 
Through   this  dusty  trader   bold, 
Dandy  Lion   seeks  a  bride, 
Sends   his   offerings   far  and  wide 
With  his  trusty  friend,  the  bee, 
And  with  Honey  pays  the  fee." 

DATE-PLUM,  see  Persimmon. 
DEER   CLOVER,  see   Wild  Alfalfa. 
DEER'S  EARS,  see  Monument  Plant. 

DELAWARE— Honey  Sources  of. 

Clover,  tulip-tree,  willows,  maples,  fruit  bloom,  dandelion,  heartsease, 
buckwheat,  blueberry,  huckleberry,  boneset  and  asters  are  among  the  well- 
known  sources  of  honey  in  Delaware.  Beekeeping  is  not  highly  developed 
in  this  State  and  few  pay  serious  attention  to  honey  production. 

DEVIL'S  CLAW,  see  Acacia. 
DEVIL'S   SHOESTRING,  see  Bluevine. 
DEWBERRY,  see   Blackberry. 
DIERVILLA,  see  Bush  Honeysuckle. 
DOCTOR-GUM,  see  Poisonwood. 

DOGBANE   (Apocynum). 

When  not  in  bloom  the  dogbane  resembles  the  milkweed.  There  are 
several  species  found  in  Europe,  temperate  Asia  and  North  America.  In 
the  United  States  there  are  two  common  species,  Apocynum  cannabinum, 
known  as  Indian  hemp,  Canadian  hemp  or  Choctaw  root,  and  Apocynum 
androsaemifolium,   the    spreading   dogbane. 

Dogbane  can  be  distinguished  from  milkweed  by  the  finer  stem  and 
smaller   leaves.     The  stems   are   unusually  reddish   in   color.     By  Fig.  51   it 


88  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

will  be  seen  that  the  flowers  are  very  different.  At  times  the  bees  work 
on  this  plant  very  freely.  It  is  especially  abundant  in  some  localities 
along  the  Missouri  River  in  Kansas  and  Missouri. 

DOGWOOD   (Cornus). 

The  dogwoods  or  flowering  cornels  are  a  large  group  of  shrubs  with 
showy  flowers.  Some  species  are  common  over  all  of  Eastern  America, 
from  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  south  and  west  to  Texas.  The 
group  is  not  important  to  the  beekeeper,  although  occasionally  some 
honey  is  reported  from  them.  W.  C.  Brass  reports  that  in  central  Arkan- 
sas smooth  dogwood  (Cornus  femine),  locally  called  spicewood  or  buck- 
brush,  is  very  abundant,  and  the  bees  work  upon  it  industriously  during 
May.     He  reports,  however,  that  it  is  uncertain  in  its  value,  the  bees  not 


Fig.  51.     Dogbane. 

working  upon  it  every  year.  H.  B.  Parks  reports  that  the  bees  work  upon 
the  red  dogwood  (Cornus  paniculata)  in  Missouri,  but  the  author  never 
knew  them  to  work  on  this  species  in  Iowa. 

Scholl    lists    Cornus    asperifolia    as    yielding    nectar    freely     in     Texas, 
though  the  species  is  not  plentiful. 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


89 


DOORWEED,  see  Heartsease. 
DROUTH-WEED,  see  Turkey   Mullein. 


EBONY,  see   Texan   Ebony. 

ECHINOPS    SPHOEROCEPHALUS,    see    Chapman    Honey    Plant. 

ECHIUM,   see    Blueweed. 

ELDERBERRY   (Sambucus   canadensis). 

The  American  elder  or  elderberry  is  a  common  shrub  from  New  Brims- 
wick  west  to  Saskatchewan  and  south  to  Arizona  and  Texas.  Fig.  52  shows 
the    flower    clusters    of    the    common    elder    (Sambucus    canadensis).      Since 


The  elderber 


the  plant  blooms  late  in  May  and  June,  there  is  usually  an  abundance  of 
pollen  in  most  localities.  The  bees,  however,  gather  the  pollen  freely  at 
times,  and  it  is  of  value  where  pollen  is  not  plentiful  at  this  season. 

The  berries  are  used  for  pies  and  wine.    The  flowers  and  bark  are  used 
to  some  extent  for  medicinal  purposes. 


90 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Richter  lists   the  blue  elderberry  (Sambucus  glauca)   as   important   for 
pollen  in   California,  but  as  yielding  no   nectar. 

ELM  (Ulmus). 

The   elms   are   verjr  attractive   to   the   bees   for   pollen.     The   American 


5Soms   of  the   blue   gum   of   California    {Eucalyptus  gh 


or   white    elm   is    more    especially    valuable,    and    a    large    tree    will    attract 
so  many  bees  that  the  humming  sounds  like  a  swarm. 

There  are  numerous  reports  of  nectar  from  elm  in  Texas.  Scholl  lists 
the  winged  elm  (Ulmus  alata)  as  giving  a  good  yield  of  honey,  surplus 
sometimes  being  secured  from  it.  He  described  the  honey  as  amber  in 
color,  with  strong  and  characteristic  aroma.  He  also  lists  the  American 
elm  as  a  source  of  nectar. 


EPILOBIUM,  see  Fireweed. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  91 

ERIOGONUM,  Wild  Buckwheat  or  Flat  Top. 

A  group  of  low  annual  or  perennial  plants  common  to  the  Rocky 
Mountain  and  plains  States.  It  is  a  large  group  and  numerous  species  are 
to  be  found  from  Nebraska  to  California.  In  New  Mexico  the  Eriogonum 
are  among  the  commonest  plants,  there  being  something  like  forty  species 
recorded  from  that  State.  The  best  known  is  the  wild  buckwheat  of 
southern  California  (Eriogonum  fasciculatum).  This  is  an  important 
source  of  nectar  in  that  region.  The  honey  is  said  to  be  light  amber  and 
of  good  flavor.    It  granulates  readily. 

Richter  lists  it  as  the  most  important  honey  plant  in  many  southern 
California   localities. 

In  Colorado  Eriogonum  effusum  is  sometimes  known  as  "heather."  Ac- 
cording to  Herman  Rauchfuss  it  yields  nectar  nearly  every  year  when 
there  are  late  rains.  It  blooms  in  August  and  September  and  is  usually  in 
bloom  for  some  time  before  the  bees  are  attracted  to  it.  He  sometimes 
gets  a  super  of  comb  honey  per  colony  from  this  source.  The  honey  he 
reports  to  be  amber,  of  fine  quality,  and  strong  aroma,  of  which  one  does 
not    easily   tire. 

It  grows  abundantly  on  the  prairies  about  Denver.  The  plant  is  small 
and  inconspicuous,  with  minute  flowers,  and  is  not  generally  recognized 
as   a   honey  plant   among  beekeepers   of   Colorado. 

"Wild  buckwheat  (Eriogonum  fasciculatum)  is  one  of  the  principal 
honey  plants  of  southern  California.  In  the  Acton,  Antelope  Valley 
and  Elsinore  districts  it  is  the  main  reliance.  Although  quite  abund- 
ant at  lower  levels,  it  does  not  yield  much  nectar  below  1,500  feet  nor 
above  5,000  feet.  The  honey  is  a  deep  light  amber,  but  of  fine  flavor, 
and  the  comb  is  very  white.  The  honey  has  such  a  heavy  body  that 
it  is  seldom  extracted."— J.  D.  Bixby,  Western  Honeybee,  May,  1917, 
page   116. 

ERODIUM,   see  Pin  Clover. 

EUCALYPTUS. 

There  are  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  different  species  of  eucalyp- 
tus trees,  most  of  which  are  native  to  Australia  and  Tasmania,  where 
they  are  the  most  characteristic  and  important  timber  trees.  Many  of 
them  secrete  resinous  gums,  hence  are  called  "gum  trees."  A  number  of 
commercial  products  are  derived  from  them.  They  have  been  widely  in- 
troduced into  California,  and,  to  some  extent,  also  into  Florida,  Texas 
and  other  Southern  States.  The  various  species  are  known  as  sugar  gum, 
blue  gum,  mahogany  gum  ,red  gum,  stringy  bark,  white  iron  bark,  red 
box  tree  and  various  similar  names.  Richter  lists  21  species  as  yielding 
honey  in  California.  According  to  this  author  there  is  a  great  variation 
in  the  quality  of  honey  from  the  different  species.  While  some  species 
seem  to  yield  water-white  honey  of  good  quality,  others  produce  an  amber 
product  of  low  value.  The  blue  gum  (Eucalyptus  globulus)  is  said  to  pro- 
duce "honey,  amber,  of  acid  flavor,  heavy  body  and  granulating  within 
a  few  months.  The  blue  gum  is  very  constant  in  nectar  secretion,  even 
in  spite  of  unfavorable  weather,  and  since  it  is  of  wide  distribution,  con- 
siderable quantities  of  honey  come  from  this  source.     On  account  of  the 


92 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


pronounced  flavor  of  eucalyptus  honey  there  is  little  or  no  demand  for 
if   in   the   retail   trade." 

On  the  other  hand,  he  describes  white  ironbark  (Eucalyptus  leucoxy- 
lon)  "a  great  honey  producer,  with  a  beautiful  flavor  much  like  vanilla 
extract." 

Almost  all  of  the  honey  seems  t^  be  gathered  from  the  sources  which 
produce  the  poorer  grade,  so  that  tne  eucalyptus  honey  is  not  favorably 
known   in  the  markets. 

The  blooming  period  of  the  different  species  varies  so  that  there  are 
some  in  bloom  at  all  times  during  the  year.  The  blue  gum,  already  men- 
tioned, blooms  from  December  until  June,  while  the  sugar  gum  blooms 
from  August  to  November.  Several  species  bloom  during  the  winter 
months,  when  they  are  especially  valuable  in  sustaining  the  bees  until 
the  time  of  the  main  honeyflows.     Fig.  53  shows  the  eucalyptus  blossoms. 

At  the  California  short  course,  at  Davis,  in  1918,  M.  H.  Mendleson,  of 
Ventura,  spoke   as   follows   concerning  this   source: 


Fig.  54. 


of  eucalyptus  trees  in  California. 


"Every  winter  the  gum,  or  eucalyptus,  comes  into  bloom.  Last 
winter  they  filled  two  or  three  stories  high  on  eucalyptus.  I  got  1714 
cents  per  pound  for  it;  previously  I  never  could  get  more  than  4  cents, 
but  it  was  seldom  that  I  got  a  surplus  from  this  source.  The  most 
eucalyptus  honey  I  have  ever  known  was  gathered  last  spring. 

"The  scarlet  bloom  (Eucalyptus  ficifolia)  is  one  of  the  greatest 
honey  producers  I  have  ever  known,    It  grows  from  10  to  25  feet  and 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


93 


has  a  brilliant  bloom,  in  clusters,  a  beautiful  sight.  *  *  *  The  honey 
is  of  fine  flavor,  water  white.  You  can  see  the  nectar  wave  in  the 
flower  cup  when  you  shake  it.  The  flow  sometimes  lasts  a  month.  It 
will  stand  a  light  frost,  but  not  a  heavy  one.  Our  hot  east  winds  are 
very  hard  on  it,  as  they  scorch  the  trees." 

EUPATORIUM,  see   Boneset. 

EUPHORBIA,  see  Snow-On-the-Mountain,  also   Poinsettia. 


FALSE  INDIGO  (Amorpha  fruticosa). 

False  indigo  is  a  tall  shrub  common   to  low  lands  along  streams  from 


Fig.   55.     Figvvort,   or   Simpson  honey   plant. 

Pennsplvania  west  to  the  plains.  It  grows  in  thickets  and  is  very  attrac- 
tive to  the  bees.  It  is  of  special  importance  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  In 
the  Arkansas  Valley  beekeepers  report  that  bees  get  both  nectar  and  pol- 
len in  considerable  quantity,  though  it  is  seldom  mentioned  as  a  source  of 


94 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


surplus.     Nebraska  beekeepers   value   it   because   it   fills   in   the  period  be- 
tween  fruit  bloom  and  white  clover. 
FARKLE-BERRY  or  SPARKLE-BERRY   (Vaccinum  arboreum). 

The  farkle-berry  or  sparkle-berry  is  also  known  as  winter  huckleberry 
and  tree  huckleberry.  It  is  a  tall  shrub  6  to  25  feet  in  height  and  common 
from  southern  Illinois  and  Missouri  east  to  North  Carolina  and  south  to 
Texas  and  Florida.  In  parts  of  Arkansas  it  is  one  of  the  main  sources  of 
honey.     W.   C.   Brass   writes    that    in    Lonoke   County,   near   the    center   of 


Fig. 


Blossoms    of   fireweed. 


the  State,  it  is  very  abundant  and  takes  the  place  of  clover  further  north. 
It   blooms   in   May  and   the    bees    roar   on    the    sparkle-berry   bushes   like 
swarming  time.    It  belongs  to  the  group  of  plants  to  which  the  blueberries 
belong  and  most  of  these  are  good  honey  plants. 
FIDDLE   NECK,  see  Phacelia. 
FIGWORT  (Scrophularia  marilandica). 

Simpson  honey  plant,  or  figwort,  is  another   widely  distributed  plant. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  95 

It  is  common  in  the  woods  from  Maine  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  south 
to  the  Gulf.  It  is  also  said  to  occur  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  same,  or 
a  similar  plant  occurs  in  Europe  and  Asia. 

It  is  a  tall  growing  plant  from  3  to  6  feet  high,  with  numerous  small 
branches.  The  stem  is  four  angled,  with  rather  long-pointed  leaves.  The 
flowers  are  very  numerous  and  quite  small,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  pic- 
ture, Fig.  55.  It  blooms  in  the  late  summer  and  is  freely  visited  by  the 
bees. 

FILLAREE,  see   Pin  Clover. 

FIREWEED  or  WILLOW  HERB  (Epilobium  anguslifolium). 

Fireweed  is  a  common  plant  in  the  woodlands  of  the  Northern  States 
and  of  Canada.  It  is  a  tall  herb  with  attractive  pink  blossoms  on  a  long 
terminal  spike,  as  shown  in  Fig.  56.  It  springs  up  following  forest  fires 
and  covers  the  burned  district  with  a  dense  growth.  The  blooming  period 
is  long,  lasting  from  July  till  frost,  as  new  blossoms  appear  as  the  older 
ones  fade.  It  is  important  as  a  source  of  honey  in  much  of  eastern 
Canada,  Minnesota,  parts  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
where  it  is  also  valuable  in  Oregon,  Washington  and  parts  of  Montana. 
It  is  gradually  crowded  out  by  other  growth.  A  locality  may  yield  great 
crops  of  fireweed  honey  for  two  or  three  years  and  then  little  surplus 
be  gathered  from  it  for  many  years.  The  author  has  visited  beekeepers  in 
Northern  Michigan  who  count  on  an  average  of  fifty  pounds  or  more  per 
colony,  with  as  high  as  125  pounds,  in  locations  where  fireweed  was  yield- 
ing. As  fireweed  disappears  in  that  locality,  raspberry  and  milkweed  fol- 
low, and  these  are  also  good  sources,  so  that  the  location  does  not  suffer 
from  the  change. 

Honey  from  fireweed  is  very  light  in  color  and  of  high  quality.  The 
late  W.  Z.  Hutchinson,  who  wrote  much  concerning  beekeeping  in  the 
forest  region  of  northern  Michigan,  styled  it  as  the  whitest  and  finest- 
flavored  honey  with  which  he  was  acquainted. 

As  the  timber  is  removed,  settlement  gradually  clears  the  land,  and  the 
wild  growth  gives  place  to  cultivated  fields  and  pastures.  Most  of  the 
fireweed  country  is  also  good  clover  territory,  so  that  the  beekeepers  need 
not  fear  the  development  of  the  country. 

FLAT  TOP,  see  Eriogonum. 
FLEA  WEED,  see   Blue   Curls. 

FLORIDA— Honey  Plants  of. 

Wild  Pennyroyal  in  southern  half  of  the  State. 

Titi,  in  pine  swamps  in  northern  portion,  gives  surplus  only  in  west 
Florida. 

Black  Tupelo,  in  same  territory  as  titi,  bad  weather  makes  the  yield 
'uncertain. 

White  tupelo  in  low  swamps  over  west  Florida;  main  source  in 
swamps  along  the  Appalachicola  and  Chipola  rivers  in  Calhoun  County. 


96  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

Orange  from  the  north  central  portion  to  the  southern  end  of  the 
peninsula. 

Andromeda,  central  and  northwestern  part  of  the  State,  not  important. 

Gallberry  or  holly  grows  in  almost  all  parts  of  Florida,  but  does  best 
in  north  part  of  the  State. 

Saw  or  scrub  palmetto  thrives  on  sandy  soils,  doing  best  on  moist 
hummocks. 

Black  mangrove  grows  on  lands  overflowed  daily  by  salt  water  along 
the  east  coast,  but  yields  best  on  east  side. 

Partridge  pea  grows  in  great  abundance  in  the  high  pine  lands  of  the 
northern  half  of  the  State. 

Cabbage  palmetto  reaches  its  greatest  height  on  the  coasts  and  keys 
of  the  southern  section.     Yields  heavily  when  it  does  yield. 

Manchineel,  on  southern  coast  and  keys  as  far  north  as  Palm  Beach. 

Dogwood,  along  the  keys  and  southern  coast. 

Pigeon  cherry,  same  range  as  the  two  preceding. 

In  addition  there  are  a  number  of  such  fall  flowers  as  wild  sun- 
flowers, asters,  goldenrods   and   thoroughwort. 

Four-fifths  of  all  the  surplus  honey  produced  in  the  State  comes  from 
the  blossoms  of  nectar-producing  trees  or  shrubs,  not  flowering  plants. — 
E.  G.  Baldwin  in  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  March  and  April,  1911. 

FLORIDA  MAHOGANY,  see  Red  Bay. 
FLOWERING   RASPBERRY,   see   Salmon   Berry. 

FRUIT  BLOOM. 

All  the  orchard  fruits  are  of  more  or  less  value  to  the  beekeeper,  and 
few  differentiate  between  them  when  speaking  of  the  sources  of  early 
nectar.  In  localities  where  a  great  variety  of  fruit  is  grown,  the  blooming 
period  is  longer  than  where  there  are  large  orchards  of  one  kind.  In 
most  localities  the  beekeepers  depend  upon  fruit  blossoms  for  building  up 
their  colonies  in  spring,  and  when  the  weather  is  unfavorable  at  this  time, 
feeding  is  often  necessary  to  carry  the  bees  until  the  next  honeyflow.  Ap- 
ples, peaches,  pears,  plums,  apricots  and  cherries  all  secrete  nectar  abund- 
antly and,  given  strong  colonies  of  bees  and  favorable  weather,  large 
quantities  of  surplus  honey  should  be  gathered  from  these  trees.  If  it 
were  possible  to  bring  the  bees  through  the  winter  as  strong  as  in  the  fall, 
there  is  no  estimating  the  amount  of  honey  that  would  be  gathered  from 
the  early  blooming  orchard  fruits. 

FOG  FRUIT,  see  Carpet   grass. 
FRASERA,  see  Monument  Plant. 
FURZE,  see  Gorse. 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS  97 


GAILLARDIA,  see   Marigold. 

GALLBERRY  (Ilex  glabra).     See  also  Holly. 

The  gallberry,  in  some  localities  better  known  as  inkberry,  is  usually 
heard  of  as  a  honey  plant  only  in  the  South.  However,  it  occurs  as  far 
north  as  Nova  Scotia,  on  the  seashore,  and  along  the  coast  from  Massa- 
chusetts to  Virginia  and  Florida,  and  west  to  Louisiana.  It  is  a  common 
shrub  in  the  low  pine  barrens  of  the  Gulf  States.  It  is  a  small  evergreen 
shrub  with  small,  dark  leaves.  It  is  an  important  honey  plant  in  southern 
Georgia,  where  it  is  widely  distributed  over  the  sandy  lands,  especially  of 
the  coastal  plains.  It  is  important,  also,  in  the  Carolinas.  It  grows  in 
dense  thickets  and  rapidly  extends  over  newly  cleared  lands.     Fig.  57. 

"As  a  honey  plant  perhaps  it  has  no  equal  in  the  southeast.  We 
have  never  failed  to  get  a  surplus  from  it,  even  during  the  most  unfa- 
vorable weather  conditions.  It  begins  to  bloom  the  first  of  May  and 
continues  for  24  to  28  days.  During  this  time  bees  disregard  other 
bloom,  working  it  up  to  about  8  o'clock  for  the  pollen;  then  the  flow 
comes  on  for  the  remainder  of  the  day.  *  *  *  It  is  a  great  bloomer; 
even  the  stems  are  rolls  of  bloom.  *  *  *  We  have  never  taken  oft 
a  large  crop  of  this  honey,  as  147  pounds  of  surplus  is  the  best  crop 
we  have  ever  had  from  one  colony.  The  honey  is  a  light  amber  color, 
has  a  heavy  body,  a  very  mild  taste,  and  is  highly  flavored.  The  de- 
mand for  this  honey  is  so  great  that  we  cannot  furnish  our  local  mar- 
kets, consequently  very  little  is  shipped  from  the  southeast  to  other 
markets. 

"We  have  raised  tons  of  this  honey  and  have  never  seen  a  pound 
of   the   pure   article,   well   ripened,   that   granulated. 

"It  has  been  said  that  it  is  impossible  to  overstock  a  good  gall- 
berry  location.  We  do  not  know  that  this  statement  is  true,  but  we 
have  never  heard  of  one  being  overstocked.  We  have  had  bees  in  a 
location  where  there  were  362  colonies,  with  the  same  result  as  with 
100  colonies.  Good  gallberry  locations  are  nearly  numberless  and  large 
quantities  of  this  fine  honey  are  wasted  every  year  in  localities  where 
there  is  not  a  bee  to  gather  it.  The  gallberry  should  be  included  in 
the  list  of  the  best  honey  plants."— J.  J.  Wilder,  Cordele,  Ga.  Glean- 
ings, page  1200,  September,  1907. 

GAURA. 

There  are  several  species  of  gaura  of  wide  distribution.  Although 
frequently  mentioned  as  honey  plants,  they  are  seldom  of  sufficient  abund- 
ance  to   be   important. 

Scholl  reports  that  Gaura  filiformis  occasionally  yields  surplus  in 
Texas,  when  conditions  are  favorable.  The  red  gaura  is  reported  as  of 
value  in  Colorado.     (See  Red  Gaura.) 

GELSEMIUM,  see  Yellow  Jasmine. 


98 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


GEORGIA— Honey    flora    of. 

The  earliest  blooming  of  our  spring  forage  plants  is  the  alder  (alnus), 
which  commences  about  the  middle  of  January  and  lasts,,  some  seasons, 
till  the  middle  of  February.  It  yields  little  or  no  honey,  but  during  its 
time  of  bloom,  its  pollen-laden  catkins  are  covered  with  bees.  The  amount 
of  pollen  that  this  plant  affords  is  immense;  and  it  comes  in  a  time  when 
breeding  should  be  most  encouraged. 


Fig.  57.     Gallberry. 


In  some  sections  of  the  South,  particularly  on  light,  sandy  soils,  there 
may  be  found  some  yellow  jasmine  (Gelsemium  sempervirens).  As  its 
flowers  possess  very  decided  toxical  properties,  it  is  not  a  very  desirable 
plant  to  have  within  range  of  one's  bees.  It  blooms  after  the  alder  While 
our  native  black  bees  are  very  seldom  seen  working  upon  it,  the  Italians, 
in  some  seasons,  will  work  upon  it  quite  briskly.  I  am  inclined  to  think, 
from  close  observation,  that  it  is  mostly  pollen  they  gather  from  it,  though 
in  some  seasons  it  does  yield  some  honey. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


99 


The  wild  plum  (in  some  sections  known  as  the  hog  plum)  usually 
commences  to  bloom  the  last  of  February  and  lasts  for  two  or  three  weeks. 
This  is  peculiarly  a  southern  tree,  and  grows  to  great  perfection  nearly 
everywhere.  Whole  acres  are  often  covered  with  it,  forming  a  dense 
thicket,  thus  affording  the  bees  rich  pasture. 

In  March  we  have  the  p'-ach,  the  apple  (which  continues  into  April), 
the  mock  orange,  or  evergreen  wild  cherry  (Cerasus  carolinaensis),  the 
huckleberry,  strawberry,  and  a  few  other  plants  of  minor  consideration. 
Further  south  they  have  the  titi,  the  saw  palmetto  and  the  orange,  all 
good  forage  plants. 


Fig.  ,5S.     Germander,  or  wood  sage. 

The  willow,  wild  cherry,  hawthorn,  blackberries,  raspberries,  locust, 
holly  and  tulip  tree  (Liriodendron  tulipifera)  bloom  in  April.  The  two 
latter  are  most  valuable  for  honey.  The  holly  blooms  for  about  two  weeks 
— the  height  of  its  flowering  is  about  the  first  week  in  May.  The  tulip 
tree  blooms  for  three  weeks.     This  is  the  poplar  tree  of  the  south. 

In  May  we  have  the  black  gum  (Nyssa  multiflora)  and  the  persimmon, 
both  excellent   for   forage.     The  blooms   of  these  trees   are  dioecious,  that 


100  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

is,  the  male  flower  is  found  on  one  plant  and  the  female  flower  on  another. 
Bees  are  very  seldom  seen  working  on  the  female  tree,  while  on  the  male 
bloom  they  work  in  a  continuous   swarm. 

In  May,  also  blooms  the  bay  (Magnolia  glauca).  This  tree  flowers  for 
at  least  one  month,  and  extends  into  June.  It  affords  some  of  our  best 
and  most  abundant  forage.  The  Magnolia  grandiflora,  linden  and  China 
berry  (Melia  azedarach)  bloom  also  in  May.  The  magnolia  blooms  for 
six  weeks,  the  linden  from  six  to  ten  days,  and  the  China  tree  for  two 
weeks. 

Sourwood,  the  varnish  tree  (Sterculia  platanifolia),  Japan  privet  (Lu- 
gustrum)  and  a  few  other  plants  of  less  note  embrace  the  principal  forage 
in   June. 

I  have  now  enumerated  the  chief  honey-producing  plants  that  go  to 
make  up  our  spring  honey  harvest.  Take  one  season  with  another,  our 
bees  commence  to  lay  up  surplus  about  the  last  of  April  and  continue  until 
the  first  or  middle  of  June.  After  this  date  but  little  honey  is  gathered 
from  the  holly,  persimmon,  black  gum,  bay  and  sourwood.  Of  course, 
some  seasons  there  is  considerable  honey  gathered  from  other  sources. 
The  color  of  the  honey  is  usually  a  little  dark,  but  of  excellent  flavor. 

There  is  comparatively  little  forage  during  the  summer  months  of 
July  and  August.  The  button  bust  (Cephalanthus  occidentalism,  sumach, 
Asclepias  tuberosa  (known  as  pleurisy  root  and  butterfly  weed),  and 
Yucca  alnifolia  (Spanish  bayonet),  are  the  most  important.  The  cotton 
plant,  which  generally  commences  to  bloom  about  the  first  of  July, 
yields  largely  of  pollen,  but  very  little  honey.  Sumach  is  a  rich  melliflu- 
ous plant,  but  the  warm,  dry  atmosphere  evaporates  the  secretion  very 
rapidly,  so  that  the  bees  can  only  work  on  it  very  early  in  the  morning, 
while  the  dew  is  on.  The  Spanish  bayonet  plant  no  doubt  furnishes  some 
nectar.  It  generally  swarms  with  flies,  various  sorts  of  wild  bees,  and 
now  and  then  a  few  honeybees  will  visit  it. 

Bees  are  generally  able  to  gather  sufficient  stores  during  July  and 
August  to  keep  up  brood  rearing  and  the  strength  of  the  colony  until  the 
blooming  of  the  autumn  forage. 

The  first  to  bloom  of  the  fall  pasturage  is  the  Chrysopsis  graminifolia 
of  Nuttall,  a  perennial,  composite.  This  plant  is  often  taken  for  a  species 
of  dog  fennel,  but  it  is  altogether  distinct.  It  is  indigenous  to  the  south 
from  Florida  to  North  Carolina,  which  seems  to  be  its  northern  limit.  It 
is  a  yellow  flowering  weed  that  commences  to  bloom  in  August  and  keeps 
on   till  frost. 

The  goldenrod  and  the  asters  bloom  till  killed  by  frost.  I  esteem 
both  these  plants  very  highly  for  their  honey-producing  qualities.  In  some 
seasons  I  have  hives  filled  with  aster  honey  alone. — Dr.  J.  H.  P.  Brown, 
Augusta,  Ga.     American  Bee  Journal,  Page  500,  1880. 

GERMANDER    or    WOOD    SAGE    (Teucrium    canadense). 

The  germander,  also  known  as  wood  sage,  is  found  in  open  woodlands 
and  thickets  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Nebraska,  and  south  to  Florida  and 
Texas.     It  is   common  in  the  Central  States,  and  is  much   sought  by  the 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


101 


bees.  The  blooming  period  is  long.  In  1915  the  bees  were  working  on 
this  plant  in  the  writer's  garden  for  nearly  two  months.  Apparently  this 
plant  does  not  secrete  nectar  very  freely,  yet  it  is  an  excellent  plant  to 
keep  the  bees  at  work  when  they  might  otherwise  be  robbing.  The  writer 
does  not  recall  ever  having  seen  a  locality  where  it  was  sufficiently  abund- 
ant to  amount  to  very  much  by  itself,  though  it  is  a  valuable  addition  to 
the  other  honey-producing  flora.  Fig.  58  shows  the  blossoms  and  leaves, 
which  bear  some  resemblance  to  catnip. 


GIANT   HYSSOP   (Agastache   nepetoides). 

Giant  hyssop  is  a  tall  perennial  herb  with  flowers  crowded  on  a  ter- 
minal spike,  flowering  in  summer.  It  is  common  in  woodland  borders  from 
New  England  to  Minnesota  and  south  to  North  Carolina  and  Texas.  Lovell 
lists  it  as  blooming  about  six  weeks  and  much  visited  by  honeybees. 
Probably  nowhere   important. 


GILIA. 

Jepson  lists  18  species  of  gilia  as  common  to  California.  The  late 
Prof.  A.  J.  Cook,  writing  of  gilia  in  the  American  Bee  Journal  stated  that 
all  the  gilias  are  good  honey  plants.  He  mentioned  Gilia  capitata  as  the 
source  of  quantities  of  sky-blue  pollen.     He  mentions  the  fact  that  several 


102  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

species  yield  pollen  of  a  blue  color.     It  is  probably  a  source  of  minor  im- 
portance, since  it  is  seldom  mentioned  except  incidentally  in  the  literature. 

GOLDEN  GLOW,  see  Coneflower. 

GOLDEN   HONEY   PLANT   (Actinomeris   squarrosa). 

The  golden  honey  plant  is  common  from  New  York  to  Michigan  and 
Nebraska,  and  southward  to  the  Gulf  States.  This  plant  is  closely  related 
to  the  crownbeard  and  is  sometimes  classified  as  a  verbesina.  It  grows 
in  rich  bottom  lands  and  in  the  borders  of  woods  and  fields,  reaching  a 
height  of  4  to  8  feet.  The  yellow  flowers  are  very  attractive  to  the  bees 
and,  where   sufficiently   common,   are   a   valuable   source   of   nectar. 


Fig.   60.     Solidago  puberula. 


GOLDENROD  (Solidago). 

Of  the  eighty  species  of  goldenrod  all  but  three  or  four  belong  to 
North  America.  It  is  one  of  our  most  widely  distributed  native  plan'ts. 
Some  species  seem  adapted  to  nearly  every  condition  from  Canada  to 
Mexico  and  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  California.  There  is  a  wide  differ- 
ence, however,  in  the  value  of  the  different  species  to  the  beekeeper,  and 
it  is  no  easy  task  to  get  reliable  information  regarding  the  range  of  condi- 
tions under  which  it  secretes  nectar  abundantly,  nor  is  there  much  re- 
corded   information    concerning    the    particular    species    which    are    most 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


103 


valuable  for  this  purpose.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  secretion  of 
nectar  with  any  plant  is  greatly  influenced  by  soil  and  climatic  conditions. 
Some  of  our  most  valuable  honey  plants  have  been  reported  as  producing 
no  nectar  when  introduced  into  Australia. 

It  is  very  probable  that  when  we  have  studied  the  matter  carefully 
we  will  find  that  the  same  species  of  goldenrod  varies  as  much  in  its 
nectar  secretion  under  different  conditions  as  we  know  to  be  the  case 
with  alfalfa. 


Fig.  01.     Solidago  hisfida. 


Loveil  is  of  the  opinion  that  all  species  of  goldenrods  secrete  nectar 
in  some  localities.  This  is  quite  probable,  although  there  is  very  little 
honey  from  goldenrod  in  Iowa  from  any  species.  Along  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi, in  the  northeastern  counties,  a  few  beekeepers  report  honey  from 
goldenrod.  In  other  sections  of  Iowa  beekeepers  report  that  they  have 
never  seen  a  bee  on  the  plant.  Dr.  L.  H.  Pammel,  botanist  at  the  State 
Experiment  Station,  reports  nine  species  of  goldenrovls  common  to  that 
State.  He  lists  S.  serotina,  S.  canadensis  and  S.  gramLufolia  as  furnishing 
some  honey  here.  If  Loveil  is  right  about  all  yielding  nectar  under  some 
conditions,  then  all  are  of  interest  to  the  beekeeper,  -tnd  it  remains  a 
question  of  learning  the  conditions  under  which  each  species  develops 
most  favorably.    If  all  do  not  yield  nectar,  it  is  important  that  we  learn  to 


104 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


distinguish  between  the  species  which  are  valuable  honey  plants  and  those 
which  are  troublesome  weeds. 

Richter  lists  only  two  species  of  this  plant  as  important  in  California. 
The  western  goldenrod  (S.  occidentalis),  he  mentions  as  common  in  wet 
places  such  as  marshes  and  river  banks,  from  August  to  October,  yielding 


Fig.  02.      Bushy  goldenrod   (So/itlayo  graminifolia),  a  fine  honey  plant  in  New  England. 


an  amber  honey.  S.  californica,  the  common  goldenrod  of  the  coast,  he 
describes  as  common  on  dry  plains  and  hillsides  or  mountains  throughout 
the  State,  from  August  to  December.     He  lists  it  as  a  fair  honey  plant. 

Scholl  reports  goldenrods  as  common  to  all  parts  of  Texas,  and  states 
that  the  honey  yield  is  good  in  favorable  seasons  when  it  is  not  too  dry. 
He  reports  a  long  season,  from  April  to  November,  but  gives  no  list  of 
the  species  furnishing  nectar  in  that  region. 

Sladen    reports    finding    eleven    species    of    goldenrods    about    Ottawa. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


105 


He  finds  that  individually  the  canadensis  group  (Fig.  64)  produce  com- 
paratively little  nectar,  but  their  great  abundance  makes  them  important 
collectively. 

Sladen  also  notes  the  variation  of  the  plant  under  different  conditions 


M2J&1 

*l&i 

5r 

HE 

> 

:     $ 

7  y 

Fig. 


Tall,    hairy   goldenrod    (Solidago    rugosa),   one   of   the   best   for   honey. 


and  says  that  the  nature  of  the  land  determines  the  presence  and 
abundance  of  the  best  species.  He  reports  that  in  the  wet  lands  of  Char- 
lotte County,  N.  B.,  especially  in  the  Honeydale  district,  they,  together 
with  asters,  furnish  the  principal  source  of  nectar,  and  that  they  are  valu- 
able generally  as  a  source  of  surplus  in  coastal  districts  of  New  Bruns- 
wick and  Nova  Scotia.  The  same  is  said  of  eastern  Manitoba.  He  places 
the  yield  at  from  50  to  80  pounds  per  colony  in  localities  where  the  best 


106 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


species  of  goldenrod  and  asters  abound.  The  honey  is  usually  of  good 
quality,  ranging  in  color  in  the  different  districts  from  white  to  dark 
amber.  That  gathered  in  swampy  districts  is  usually  bright  golden.  Evi- 
dently goldenrod  honey  is  seldom  stored  separate  from  aster  in  localities 
from  which  these  reports  are  made. 

Mr.  Sladen  describes  three  types  of  locations  in  which  the  plants  may 
be  found  in  Canada: 


Fig.    64.     Common    or   Canada   goldenrod    (Solidago    canadensis). 


1.  Open  swamp  or  bog,  where  S.  uglinosa  and  S.  rugosa  are  found. 
The  former  begins  blooming  in  August,  while  the  latter  blooms  until  mid- 
September,  so  that  there  is  more  than  a  month  of  flow  from  these  plants. 
Although  the  bogs  are  independent  of  rain  during  the  honey  flow,  fine 
weather  and  moderate  warmth  are  necessary  to  a  crop. 

2.  Sandy  or  gravelly  barrens  or  plains.  On  the  coast,  as  well  as  in- 
land, on  such  lands  are  found  S.  puberula  (Fig.  60),  while  inland  are  to  be 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


107 


found  in  addition,  S.  squarrosa  (Fig.  59)  and  the  less  important  S.  hispida 
(Fig.  61).  Good  rains  in  early  August,  followed  by  fine  and  warm  weather, 
bring  best  results. 

3.  A  restricted  area  centering  in  Cumberland  County,  Nova  Scotia, 
in  which  S.  Graminifolia   is   a   troublesome   weed    (Fig  62.) 

He  further  reports  that  the  roadside  goldenrods  of  old  Ontario  are  not 
heavy  producers  of  honey  under  ordinary  conditions. 


Fig. 


Early   goldenrod    (Solidago  juncca. 


In  an  article  on  the  Honey  Flora  of  New  England,  which  appeared  in 
the  April,  1916,  American  Bee  Journal,  Lovell  states  as  follows: 

"If  I  were  compelled  to  stake  the  existence  of  bee  culture  in  New 

England   on   a   single   genus   of   plants   I   should   select   the   goldenrods. 

There   are   many   species,   and   they   all   yield   nectar   and  pollen.     They 

begin  to  bloom  in  midsummer  and  continue  'to  bloom  in  October.   They 

are  very  common  and   there   are   species   adapted   to   the   seashore,  the 

fields,  the  rocks  and  the  woods.    I  have  never  known  the  flow  of  nectar 

to  fail,  and  a  great  quantity  of  heavy,  yellow  honey  is  stored  annually." 

Mr.  Lovell  has  kindly  sent  me  his  field  notes  on   these  plants.     There 

is  a  large  amount  of  interesting  information  which   space  will  not  permit 

inserting  here.     The   notes   include   the   study  of   six   species,   all   of  which 

produce    some    nectar    in    Maine.     He    describes    the    tall,    hairy   goldenrod 

S.  rugosa    (Fig.  63)    as   the   latest   to  blossom   and   the   most   valuable   as   a 

honey  plant.     It   is   found   in  damp  thickets   and   on   moist   land.     While   in 

bloom   the   bees   work   it   very   diligently   and   the   honey   is   stored   rapidly. 

The  apiary  is  filled  with  a  sour  odor,  which,  in  the  evening,  is  noticeable 

at  a  distance. 


108  AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 

Goldenrod  honey,  according  to  him,  is  deep  golden  yellow  in  color, 
thick  and  heavy,  with  a  more  decided  flavor  than  white  clover  honey. 
When  extracted  it  granulates  in  a  month  or  two,  but  the  bees  winter  on  it 
perfectly. 

Next  in  importance  he  places  the  bushy  goldenrod  (S.  graminifolia) 
(Fig.  62).  This  is  common  in  fields,  open  woodlands  and  hedgerows.  The 
odor  is  faint,  but  the  nectar  is  clearly  visible  in  the  flowers.  He  reports 
as  many  as  six  honeybees  at  work  at  one  time  on  a  single  flower  cluster. 
It  will  be  noted  that  this  is  one  of  the  species  which  Doctor  Pammel  men- 
tions as  yielding  nectar  in  Iowa.  Sladen  also  cites  it  as  important  in 
Canada. 

Graenicher  collected  135  different  species  of  insects  on  this  species  in 
Wisconsin. 

The  cream-colored  goldenrod,  sometimes  called  white  goldenrod  (S. 
bicolor),  is  of  special  interest  because  of  the  fact  that  it  is  the  only  one 
of  the  group  which  is  not  yellow  in  color.  Although  it  produces  nectar, 
I  can  find  no  record  which  indicates  that  it  is  of  much  importance  as  a 
honey  plant  anywhere.     Lovell  says  that  it  is  of  little  value  in  Maine. 

The  early  goldenrod  (S.  juncea)  (Fig.  65),  is  the  first  to  bloom  in 
Maine  and  is  very  abundant  in  old  fields.  The  bees  visit  it  freely,  but 
apparently  do  not  get  much  honey  from  it. 

Graenicher  states  that  he  has  collected  182  different  species  of  insects 
on  this  plant,  in  Wisconsin,  which  indicates  the  presence  of  considerable 
nectar  in  that  locality. 

General  Reports 

In  searching  through  the  beekeeping  literature  for  reports  on  honey 
from  goldenrods  I  seldom  find  the  particular  species  mentioned..  There 
are  numerous  reports  of  honey  from  goldenrod,  but  this  is  as  far  as  the 
report  usually  goes. 

"Two  colonies  of  bees  taken  to  a  sandy  plain  forty  miles  north  of 
Ottawa,  August  25,  each  gathered,  in  three  weeks,  about  40  pounds  of 
surplus  honey  from  S.  puberula  and  S.  squarrosa.  It  is  estimated  that 
at  least  three-fourths  of  the  honey  came  from  S.  puberula,  which  was 
much  more  abundant  than  S.  squarrosa.  The  honey  is  of  a  light  color 
and  the  flavor  and  aroma  are  pleasant  and  distinctly  suggestive  of 
goldenrod." — Sladen,  in  36th  report,  Ontario,  B.  K.  A. 

"You  ought  to  see  the  bees  work  on  it.  They  store  lots  of  honey 
from  it.  Last  year  I  had  five  or  six  nuclei  which  did  not  have  any 
stores  at  all  on  the  first  of  September,  but  when  I  went  to  feed  them 
for  winter  I  found  they  had  twenty  pounds  of  nice  honey  gathered 
from  goldenrod.  They  all  came  through  the  winter  in  good  condition." 
— Kentucky.     Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture. 

"The  goldenrod  is  one  of  our  main  sources  for  a  fall  flow.  The 
bees  usually  fill  one  or  more  supers  from  it." — Connecticut.  Gleanings 
in  Bee  Culture. 

"My  bees  have  gathered  lots  of  goldenrod  honey  this  fall,  and  at 
times  the  odor  has  been  offensive  to  the  neighbors." — Vermont.  Glean- 
ings in  Bee  Culture. 

"Smartweed  and  goldenrod  grow  here,  but  do  not  furnish  any  honey. 
Never  saw  a  bee  on  them,"— Iowa.    American  Bee  Journal, 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  109 

GOOSEBERRY    (Grossularia). 

Gooseberries  are  native  American  shrubs  with  stems  covered  with 
sharp  thorns  or  spines.  There  are  several  species  widely  distributed. 
They  are  very  attractive  to  the  bees  and  are  of  some  importance,  espe- 
cially where  grown  in  large  plantings  for  market.  The  wild  varieties  are 
common  in  open  woodlands  in  nearly  every  section  of  the  country. 

GOLDEN  WATTLE,  see  Acacia. 
GOPHER  WOOD,  see  Yellow  Wood. 

GORSE  or  FURZE   (Ulex  europaeus). 

Figure  66  is  a  spiny  evergreen  shrub  with  yellow  flowers  that  is  com- 
mon in  Europe,  where  it  is  said  to  be  used  to  some  extent  for  fuel  and 
fodder.  There  are  few  references  to  it  in  this  country.  In  California  it 
is  said  to  bloom  during  all  seasons,  although  much  more  freely  in  spring. 
Richter  reports  it  as  a  very  good  honey  plant  on  the  hills  of  Marin 
County. 

GRANJENO,  see  Hackberry. 

GRAPE  (Vitis). 

The  grape  family  is  represented  by  wild  species  in  all  parts  of  the 
temperate  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  and  by  cultivated  species  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  world.  There  are  about  thirty  species  of  wild 
grapes,  and  where  sufficiently  common  they  are  very  attractive  to  the  bees. 
In  many  localities  cultivated  grapes  are  grown  in  large  acreage.  The  nec- 
tar yield  is  not  as  abundant  as  with  many  plants,  but  is  of  some  value 
where  the  vines  are  largely  grown.  Quantities  of  pollen  are  gathered  from 
this  source.    At  times  honeydew  is  gathered  from  the  leaves. 

Scholl  lists  the  mountain  grape  (Vitis  monticola)  as  giving  a  fairly 
good  honey  yield  and  furnishing  pollen  for  early  brood  rearing.  Richter 
lists  the  California  wild  grape  as  yielding  some  honey. 

Bees  and  Grapes 

Of  the  disagreements  between  fruit  growers  and  beekeepers,  probably 
those  growing  out  of  the  tendency  .of  the  bees  to  suck  the  juice  from 
cracked  grapes  have  been  most  serious.  Many  unfortunate  misunder- 
standings have  resulted  from  such  circumstances,  though  the  injury  was  as 
great  to  the  beekeeper  as  to  the  fruit  grower,  in  many  cases. 

This  condition  arises  from  a  combination  of  circumstances  which  does 
not  often  occur  in  the  average  locality.  In  the  first  place,  the  bees  do  not 
seek  the  grapes  when  there  is  plenty  of  nectar  in  the  field,  and,  beside,  thev 
are  unable  to  reach  the  juice  unless  the  grape  has  first  cracked  open 
through  unfavorable  weather  conditions  or  has  been  injured  by  birds, 
wasps,  or  other  agency.  Grape  growers,  seeing  the  bees  at  work  in  the 
vineyards,  have  often  accused  the  bees  of  injury  to  'the  fruit.  The  fact  of 
the  matter  is  that  the  bee  is  unable  to  puncture  the  fruit,  and  only  sucks 


110 


AMERICAN  HONEY   PLANTS 


the  juice  from  such   fruits   as    have    already    been    broken   open   and  are 
already  damaged. 

Wet   weather  often   causes   ripening  grapes  to   crack  open   to   such   an 
extent  that  they  would  be  of  little  value,  even  though  no  insect  touched 


Fig. 


Gorse  or  furze. 


tiiem  thereafter.  In  dry  weather,  also,  birds  sometimes  pierce  the  skins, 
apparently  in  search  of  moisture  from  lack  of  an  available  water  supply. 
Some  authorities  say  that  at  such  times  a  liberal  supply  of  water  in  open 
vessels  near  the  vineyard  will  stop  the  injury  from  the  birds.  The  English 
sparrow  is  accused  of  injury  to  grapes  to  a  larger  extent  than  most  birds. 

The  grape-berry  moth  infests  a  great  many  grapes  in  some  localities. 
In  fact,  entomologists  state  that  in  some  localities  as  high  as  50  per  cent  of 
the  crop  is  injured  by  this  insect  alone.  The  fact  that  the  honeybee  sucks 
the  juice  from  the  berries  which  have  already  been  opened  by  wet  weather, 
grape-berry  moths  or  other  causes,  does  not  greatly  injure  the  grape 
grower,  for  such  fruit  is  of  little  value. 

The  writer  has  visited  the  raisin  districts  of  Southern  California  and 
discussed  this  condition  with   the  raisin  growers.     The  accompanying  pic 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


111 


ture  (Fig.  67)  shows  a  bunch  of  raisin  grapes  that  had  been  sucked  dry 
by  the  bees.  In  that  locality  rains  are  very  infrequent  when  the  raisins 
are  being  dried.  They  are  spread  out  in  thin  layers  in  crates  and  the 
crates  left  in  the  sun,  or  piled  up  one  above  another,  till  fully  dry. 
Previous  to  the  writer's  visit  there  had  been  an  unexpected  rain,  and  some 
raisins  were  allowed  to  get  wet.  As  a  result  they  cracked  open,  and  there 
being  just   then  no  available   nectar  for  the  bees,  tlu-y   swarmed  over   the 


Fii 


Rais 


IS    have   been   broken    by 


raisins  and  sucked  them  dry,  as  shown  in  the  picture.  The  grower  admit- 
ted, however,  that  the  raisins  bad  been  so  badly  damaged  by  the  rain  as 
to  be  of  little  value. 

The  thing  which  few  grape  growers  seem  to  understand,  is  that  it  is 
unfortunate,  indeed,  for  the  beekeeper  in  northern  regions,  whose  bees  fill 
their  hives  with  this  grape  juice.  In  the  north  there  are  long  periods 
during  the  long  winter  months  when  the  bees  are  unable  to  leave  the  hive. 
Since  the  bee  is  only  able  to  void  her  excrement  while  on  the  wing,  there 
is  a  large  accumulation  of  feces  during  such  long  confinement.  If  the  bees 
have  only  the  best  white  honey  for  food  the  tax  is  severe  at  best.     When 


112  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

they  have  fruit  juice,  honeydew  or  other  food  containing  a  large  amourt 
of  waste  matter,  the  intestines  become  so  distended  that  the  bees  die  for 
lack  of  opportunity  of  a  cleansing  flight.  Grape  growers  will  in  many 
cases  be  surprised  to  learn  that  thousands  of  bees  die  from  having  filled 
their  combs  with  fruit  juice  instead  of  honey.  Of  course,  the  wide-awake 
beekeeper  will  remove  'this  material  from  the  hive  and  give  them  good 
honey  or  sugar  syrup  instead,  if  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  This,  however,  in- 
volves a  large  amount  of  labor,  and  the  gathering  of  the  juice  from  the 
grapes,  instead  of  being  an  advantage  to  the  beekeeper,  is  a  serious  incon- 
venience to  him.  In  southern  California,  where  there  is  no  winter  con- 
finement, 'there  is  no  particular  injury  to  the  bees,  other  than  spoiling  the 
grade  of  any  honey  with  which  it  may  happen  to  be  mixed. 

The  late  Charles  Dadant,  who  was  one  of  the  most  widely  known  bee- 
keepers of  the  past  generation,  on  one  occasion  had  a  difficulty  with  some 
growers  who  could  not  be  made  to  understand  that  he  was  not  getting  rich 
at  the  expense  of  his  neighbors,  when  his  bees  were  attracted  to  their 
grapes.  He  decided  that  the  only  way  to  convince  them  that  the  interests 
of  the  beekeeper  and  the  grape  grower  were  mutual,  was  to  grow  the 
largest  acreage  of  grapes  in  the  neighborhood.  This  he  proceeded  to  do, 
and  after  he  became  the  largest  grower  of  grapes  in  his  community  there 
was  no  longer  any  criticism,  for  they  could  readily  see  that  he  had  too 
much  at  stake  in  his  grapes  to  permit  him  to  be  prejudiced  in  favor  of 
the  bees. 

That  bees  are  valuable  in  securing  the  fertilization  of  the  blossoms  of 
some  varieties  of  grapes,  there  is  little  question. 
GRAPE   FRUIT   (Citrus  decumana). 

Nowhere  in  America  is  the  grape  fruit  cultivated  in  such  extensive 
orchards  as  is  the  case  with  the  orange  and  lemon.  It  is  recognized  as  a 
valuable  source  of  honey,  but  not  equal  to  either  of  the  foregoing.  It  is 
an  evergreen  tree  similar  in  habit  to  the  other  citrus  fruits,  and  the  area 
devoted  to  its  cultivation  is  being  extended  in  various  districts. 

Bees  are  very  efficient  pollenizers  of  grape  fruit  blossoms.  The  At- 
wood  grape  fruit  ranch,  one  of  the  largest  in  Florida,  is  provided  with 
two  apiaries,  brought  there  at  the  request  of  the  manager  of  the  ranch. 
They  hold  that  the  trees  bear  a  larger  number  of  fruits  since  the  bees 
have  been  kept  in  close  proximity. 

GRASSES. 

There  are  many  grasses  which  are  attractive  to  the  bees  for  pollen. 
Timothy  or  herd's  grass  produces  pollen  in  great  abundance  and  the  bees 
are  often  observed  gathering  it.  Occasionally  some  honeydew  may  be 
gathered  from  the  grasses  also,  but  no  honey. 

GREASEWOOD   (Adenostoma  fasciculatum).     CHAMISE. 

Greasewood  is  an  evergreen  bush  or  shrub  of  spreading  habit  about 
two  to  ten  feet  in  height.  Jepson  describes  it  as  "the  most  abundant  and 
characteristic  bush  of  the  higher  coast  ranges  and  Sierra  Nevada,  com- 
monly gregarious  and  occupying,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  shrubs,  exten- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  H.3 

sive  and  especially  abrupt   slopes  and  mountain   ridges.     It  often   forms   a 
distinct  zone  between  the  foothills  and  the  yellow  pine  belt." 

Richter  lists  it  as  eagerly  sought  by  the  bees  in  several  California 
counties,  though  no  mention  is  made  of  it  as  a  source  of  surplus  honey. 

GREENBRIAR   (Smilax). 

There  are  several  species  of  greenbriar,  some  of  which  are  common 
from  Canada  to  Texas.  They  grow  along  watercourses  and  in  open  wood- 
lands and  the  stems  are  covered  with  stiff  and  hard  thorns.  Scholl  lists 
one  species  as  yielding  nectar  in  Texas.  The  author  found  reports  to  'the 
effect  that  bees  gather  honey  from  greenbriar  in  McLennan  County,  Texas. 
At  the  same  time  it  was  stated  that  no  honey  was  gathered  from  it  in  other 
nearby  sections.  The  plant  seems  to  be  of  doubtful  value  and  is  not  suf- 
ficiently abundant  to  be  important. 

GRINDELIA,  see  Gum  Weed. 
GROUNDSEL,  see   Butterweed. 
GROUND    LAUREL,  see   Arbutus. 
GUAIACUM,   see   Soapbush. 
GUAYACAN,   see   Soapbush. 
GUM,  see  Tupelo,  also  Eucalyptus. 

GUM-ELASTIC  or  SHITTIM.WOOD  (Bumelia  lanuginosa  rigida). 

Gum-elastic  is  the  common  name  in  south  Texas  for  the  Arizona 
buckthorn,  a  small  tree  occurring  from  western  Texas  to  Arizona.  It  has 
a  short  stem  with  stiff  and  very  spiny  branches.  It  is  frequently  men- 
tioned as  a  source  of  honey  in   southern  Texas. 

There  are  reports  to  the  effect  that  it  sometimes  yields  a  surplus  along 
the  Trinity  River  and  that  the  honey  often  sours  in  the  combs  after  being 
sealed. 

GUM   TREE,   see   Eucalyptus,  also   Tupelo. 

GUM   WEED    or  GUM   PLANT   (Grindelia   squarrosa). 

The  gum  weed,  also  called  rosin  weed,  is  a  common  plant  from  Wyom- 
ing and  Colorado  south  to  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  Texas.  It  occurs 
sparingly  eastward  to  Minnesota  and  Missouri.  The  bright  yellow  flowers 
exude  a  milky  resinous  gum,  which  gives  rise  to  its  name,  "gum  weed."  It 
i;  also  widely  known  as  rosin  weed  (Fig.  68).  It  blooms  in  August  and  is 
much  sought  by  the  bees.  The  honey  is  yellow  and  of  inferior  flavor.  It 
i>:  often  mixed  with  light  honey  in  the  super  and  the  grade  spoiled  as  a 
result.  In  Colorado  it  is  well  known  by  the  name  of  "rosin  weed."  There 
the  comb-honey  producers  complain  that  it  often  spoils  the  quality  of 
their  product  through  being  mixed  with  the  honey  from  alfalfa  and  sweet 
clover.  Honey  from  gum  weed  candies  very  quickly,  so  quickly  in  fact, 
that  Colorado  beekeepers  say  that  the  bees  have  to  hurry  home  with  the 
load  to  prevent  it  becoming  candied  in  their  sacs.  Comb  honey  which 
candies   cannot   readily  be   restored,  hence   in   localities   where   gum  weed 


114 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


ic  abundant  the  beekeeper  may  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  produce  ex- 
tracted honey.  Even  this  does  not  solve  the  problem  entirely,  since  the 
gum  weed  honey  candies  in  the  combs  so  readily  as  to  make  it  difficult  to 
extract.  There  are  few  reports  of  large  surplus  from  this  source.  In 
most  cases  it  is  mixed  with  other  honey  and  only  in  such  quantity  as  to 
make  it  rather  a  nuisance  than  otherwise.  The  tendency  to  candy  in  the 
combs   makes   it   undesirable   for  winter   stores. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  115 


H 


HACKBERRY   (Celtis). 

The  hackberries  are  an  important  group  of  trees.  There  are  about 
sixty  species  of  trees  and  shrubs  which  are  widely  distributed  in  both  the 
old  world  and  America.  There  are  about  half  a  dozen  species  known  to 
America,  and  of  these,  three  are  much  valued  by  the  beekeepers  of  Texas. 
The  author  has  never  known  the  bees  to  find  nectar  on  the  hackberry  in 
the  north,  and  was  surprised  at  the  many  reports  of  honey  from  hack- 
berry   received    from   Texas   beekeepers    while   visiting   that    State. 

The  granjeno  (Celtis  pallida)  is  a  shrub  common  to  the  mesas  and 
foothills  of  western  and  southern  Texas.  E.  G.  LeStourgeon,  of  San 
Antonio  , regards  it  as  the  best  of  all  the  hackberries,  blooming  after  every 
good  rain.  The  honey  is  pale  amber  in  color  and  of  good  quality.  He  re- 
ports that  honey  from  all  hackberries  is  of  good  quality.  When  the  au- 
thor visited  at  Brownsville,  in  February,  1918,  the  bees  were  working  on 
the  above  species  very  freely  at  that  time. 

The  Southern  hackberry  or  sugarberry  (Celtis  mississippiensis)  is  com- 
mon all  over  the  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic  States  from  Kentucky  and  south- 
ern Illinois  to  Florida,  Arkansas  and  central  Texas.  LeStourgeon  reports 
that  this  species  blooms  after  the  others,  in  March  and  April,  and  that 
while   it  yields   some  honey,  it   is   not   as  good  as  the   others. 

The  Northern  hackberry  (Celtis  occidentalis)  is  also  known  as  sugar- 
berry,  and  is  common  from  New  England  and  Ontario  to  Minnesota,  Ne- 
braska, Colorado  and  southward  to  Georgia  and  Texas.  The  author  has 
never  heard  a  report  of  bees  visiting  this  species  for  nectar  in  the  North, 
but  it  is  reported  also  as  a  source  of  honey  in  Texas. 

HAU  TREE   (Paritium  tiliacium). 

"The  hau  tree  of  Hawaii  has  nectaries  on  its  leaves  which  secrete  a 
honeydew.  These  are  located  on  the  veins  of  the  leaves  near  the  stem, 
and  are  one,  two,  three  or  five  in  number.  Small  drops  of  honeydew  may 
frequently  be  seen  on  these  spots.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  these 
extra-floral  nectaries  are  present  on  the  outside  of  the  calyx  of  the  flow- 
ers. There  is  apparently  no  true  floral  nectary.  The  hau  tree  is  used  ex- 
tensively as  a  hedge,  and  grows  from  20  to  30  feet  high.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  this  is  the  source  of  any  great  percentage  of  the  honeydew 
honey." — E.  F.  Phillips.  Bui.  75,  Part  5,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

HAW,  see  Hawthorne. 

HAWAII— Honey   Flora   of. 

The  algarroba  tree  (Prosopis  juliflora)  is  either  the  same  species  as, 


116  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

or  very  closely  related  to,  the  mesquite  of  the  southwest.  On  the  islands 
it  grows  to  the  size  of  a  tree,  as  is  also  the  case  in  Mexico.  In  Texas  it 
is  generally  very  much  smaller.  In  1908  the  tree  came  into  bloom  about 
the  1st  of  March,  the  time  varying  considerably  in  different  localities  on 
the  islands.  It  usually  blooms  until  August,  and  this  very  long  blooming 
period  adds  greatly  to  its  value  to  the  beekeepers. 

The  following  list  of  honey  plants,  other  than  algarroba,  is  furnished 
by  Mr.  D.  L.  Van  Dine,  Entomologist  of  the  Hawaii  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.  Mr.  Van  Dine  has  studied  the  honey  sources  of  the  islands 
very  thoroughly: 

Forest  Trees 

"Texas  mesquite  (Prosopis  glandulosa).  Growing  in  dooryard  of 
Mr.  C.  C.  Conradt,  Pukoo,  Island  of  Molokai.  Seeds  under  propaga- 
tion at  Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  Introduced  by  Mr. 
Conrad  from  Texas  several  years  ago. 

Ohia  lehua  (Metrodsideros  polymorpha).  Produces  a  particularly 
high  grade  of  honey.  Locations  for  apiaries,  as  a  rule,  somewhat  in- 
accessible. One  location  on  the  island  of  Molokai  is  within  the  ohia 
lehua  belt. 

Various  species  of  Acacia  (black  wattle,  koa,  etc.)  Mountainous 
districts. 

Various  species  of  eucalyptus.     Mountainous  districts. 

Wiliwili  (Erythrina  monosperma).  In  gulches  on  Molokai  and 
Oahu. 

Rose-apple    (Eugenia   jambos). 

Mamani  (Sophora  chrysophylla).     Found  in  higher  forest  belts. 

Catalpa  (Catalpa  speciosa  and  C.  bignonioides).  Introduced  by 
Mr.  Jared  G.  Smith,  April,  1902,  from  the  Missouri  Botanical  Gardens. 

Logwood  (Haematoxylon  campechianum).  -Found  in  dooryards. 
Two  trees  are  growing  in  the  grounds  of  Oahu  College  and  one  in  the 
grounds  of  Lunalilo  Home,  Honolulu.  Seeds  under  propagation  at 
Hawaii  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  The  honey  produced  by 
bees  from  this  tree  is  reported  to  be  the  finest  table  honey  in  the 
world. 

The  black  mangrove  of  Florida.  Introduced  by  Mr.  Jared  G.  Smith 
from  Southern  Florida,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  mud  flats 
from  washing  along  the  coast  of  Molokai,  near  Kaunakakai.  The 
introduction  was  made  several  years  ago  and  the  trees  are  now  well 
established  at  the  above-mentioned  place.  The  tree  is  a  valuable 
honey  plant. 

Fruit  Trees 

Various  species  of  citrous  (orange,  lemon,  lime,  etc.) 
Avocado   (Persea   gratissima). 
Banana  (Musa  spp). 
Guvy    (Psidium   spp). 
Loquat    (Eriobotrya  japonica). 

Tamarind  (Tamarindus  indica). 

Pasture  Plants 

California  burr-clover  (Medicago  denticulata).  Introduced  on 
Maul  in  1882  by  Mr.  C.  R.  Blacow.  Now  found  generally  on  the 
ranches  of  the  islands. 

Carpet  grass  (Lippia  repens).  Growing  on  grounds  of  Hawaii  Ag- 
ricultural Experiment  Station. 

Alfilaria     or     filaree     (Erodium     cicutarium     and     E.     moschatum). 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  117 

Seeds   introduced   in   California   hay.     Established   on   upland  pastures 
on  Hawaii  and  Molokai. 

White  clover  (Trifolium  repens).     Found  on  Haleakala  and  Maka- 
wao  pastures,  Maui. 

Crop   Plants 

Sisal   (Agave  sisalana). 

Various    species    of    curcurbits    (melons,    squashes,    pumpkins,    cu- 
cumbers, etc.) 

Forage   Plants. 

Alfalfa,  several  varieties. 

Lupins,   blue   and   yellow.     Occasionally    used    as    green     manure 
plants  on  sugar  plantations. 
Tangier  pea  (Lathyrus  tingitanus).    Growing  at  Haiku,  Maul. 

Sanfoin    (Onobrychus  sativa).     A  forage   plant   introduced  by  Mr. 
Jared  G.  Smith  in  1904.     Seed  distributed  to  ranches. 

Ornamental  Plants 

Palms,  particularly  the  royal  and  cocoanut. 

Poppy,   a   horticultural    form   of   Romneya   coulteri,   found    in   gar- 
dens in  Honolulu. 

Chinese  inkberry  (Sestrum  diurnum). 
Thevitia    nereifolia). 
Vines    (Ipomaea   supp). 

Weeds 

Lantana,  two  species.  . 
California    Sages    (Artemisia).      Introduced    by    Hawaiian    Beekeepers' 
Association  in   1907.     Not  as  yet  established.     Suitable  for  waste,  arid 
lands.     The  most  important  honey  plant  in   California.     Valuable  as  a 
forage  plant. 

Ilima    (Sida   spp). 

Oi  (Verbena  bonariensis). 

Pill  grass   (Heteropogon  contortus). 

Spanish   needle   (lauki)   (Bidens  pilosa). 

Puakala   (Argemone  mexicana). 
Alii    (Dodonaea   viscosa    var.    spathulata). 

Hila  hila  (undetermined). 

Other    weeds    are    Waltheria    americana,    Ipomaea    pes-caprae    (vine 
along  seacoast),  and  Malvastrum  tricuspidatum. 

Other    Sources    of    Honey 

Hawaii  is  peculiar  in  that  most  of  the  honey  produced  is  from  some 
source  other  than  flowers.  Two-thirds  of  the  honey  shipped  annually 
from  the  islands  is  largely  or  entirely  honeydew  honey.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  this  comes  from  the  exudations  of  the  sugar  cane  leafhopper. — 
E.  F.  Phillips,  Bui.  75,  Part  5,  Bureau  of  Entomology. 

HAWTHORN   (Crataegus). 

Figure  69  pictures  a  hawthorn  in  full  bloom.  The  picture  does  not 
do  justice  to  the  masses  of  white  flowers  with  which  the  tree  was  covered. 
This  is  an  eastern  species  (Crataegus  punctata),  which  occurs  from  Que- 
bec to  Ontario  and  south  to  Georgia.  It  was  about  the  middle  of  June 
when  this  picture  was  taken  and  the  bees  were  working  on  these  trees 
everywhere  we  went.  Clover  had  not  begun  to  yield  to  any  extent  and  the 
thorn  was  a  great  boost  to  the  bees  wherever  it  was  plentiful. 


118 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


There  are  many  different  species  of  hawthorn,  or  haw,  some  of  which 
occur  in  Europe  and  Asia,  as  well  as  in  North  America.  On  this  continent 
some  species  are  common  from  Canada  to  Mexico  and  west  to  the  treeless 


Fig.  69.     The  hawthorn  blooms  abundantly  and   yields  nectar  freely. 


plains.  Scholl  reports  the  white  thorn  (Crataegus  spathulata)  as  valuable 
for  both  honey  and  pollen  in  Texas,  where  it  blooms  in  April.  There  are 
about  25  species  of  these  trees  within  the  United  States,  and  all  may  be 
regarded  as  valuable  sources  of  honey  where  they  are  sufficiently  plentiful. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


119 


In  general,  they  may  be  regarded  as  similar  to  the  tree  fruits  in  quality 
and  quantity  of  nectar.  Five  species  are  known  to  occur  in  Ontario,  where 
they   are   regarded   as   important   honey   plants. 


Fig. 


The   hazelnut   is  the  source   of  some   pollei 


HAZELNUT   (Corylus   americana). 

The  hazelnut  is  a  slender  growing  shrub  common  in  the  borders  of 
woodlands  of  the  most  of  the  temperate  North  America.  It  yields  some 
pollen  and  is  valuable  where  there  is  a  scarcity  of  early  pollen-bearing 
plants.  The  figure  shows  the  male  blossoms,  which  are  more  conspicuous 
than  the  fertile  ones. 


HEARTSEASE  (Polygonum). 

We  now  come  to  another  large  family  with  a  variety  of  names.  In 
some  localities  one  name  will  apply,  while  in  another  the  plant  will  be 
known  by  an  entirely  different  one.  Smartweed,  knotweed,  doorweed, 
persicaria,  lady's  thumb,  water  pepper,  heartsease  and  several  other  names 
are  applied  to  these  plants.  They  are  widely  distributed,  covering  practi- 
cally all  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  as  well  as  much  of  Europe  and 


120 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Asia.  P.  persicara,  or  lady's  thumb,  the  large-flowered  kind,  is  most  often 
called  heartsease,  and  is  also  said  to  be  the  best  honey  producer.  It  is  an 
introduced  species,  coming  from  Europe,  and  is  still  widely  scattered 
through  the  sale  of  clover  seed,  the  seed  of  this  plant  being  commonly 
mixed  with  red  clover  seed. 

The  honey  gathered  from  these  plants  varies  greatly,  both  in  quantity 
and  quality.  Some  species  do  not  seem  to  yield  at  all,  at  least  not  reg- 
ularly,  while    others    produce    large    quantities    of    nectar.      The    blooming 


Fig. 


Two  species   of  heartsease  or  smartweed. 


period  in  the  North  is  from  midsummer  until  frost,  and  occasionally  large 
yields  are  reported,  an  average  of  200  pounds  per  colony  not  being  the 
highest  on  record,  from  this  source  alone.  Sometimes  honey  from  these 
plants  is  of  very  good  quality,  while  from  other  species  it  is  very  dark  and 
of  inferior  grade.  The  better  grade  of  honey  is  sometimes  designated  as 
heartsease  honey,  while  the  poorer  grade  is  called  smartweed  honey. 
These  plants  grow  in  moist  fields  everywhere,  and  frequently  come  up 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


121 


in  grain  fields  and  stubbles  late  in  summer,  after  cultivation  has  ceased, 
thus  offering  plentiful  forage  for  the  bees,  in  fields  where  otherwise  they 
would   find  nothing. 

HEATHER  (Calluna  vulgaris). 

Heather  is  a  very  important  honey  plant  in  Europe,  but  occurs  in  few 
places  in  America.  Gray's  botany  lists  it  at  the  following  places:  "Low 
grounds,  Massachusetts  at  Tewksbury  and  West  Andover;  Maine,  at  Cape 


Blossoms  of  the  heather. 


Elizabeth;  also  Nova  Scotia;  Cape  Breton;  New  Foundland,  etc."  It  may 
in  time  become  locally  important  in  Eastern  America,  though  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  it  be  so  at  present. 

Writing  in  Gleanings,  D.  M.  MacDonald  has  the  following  comments 
on  heather  honey  in  Scotland: 

"The  product  of  heather  is  of  a  rich  amber  color,  bright  and  spark- 
ling, rather  than  dull  and  shady.  It  has  a  pronounced  flavor,  delicious 
to  the  palate  when  one  has  acquired  a  liking  for  it.  The  aroma  is 
pungent  and  penetrating,  making  itself  manifest  in  a  room  where 
heather  honey  is  kept  in  a  closed  cupboard.  Its  consistency  is  so  re- 
markable that  it  will  not  leave  the  comb  by  any  amount  of  centrifugal 
force  used  in  the  extractor,  and  when  desired  in  the  liquid  form,  the 
combs  have  to  be  melted  and  pressed  by  heavy  screw  power  in  a 
specially  constructed  press.  Most  beekeepers  in  heather  districts, 
therefore,  work  for  sections  only;  but  it  pays  well  to  press  all  defec- 


122  AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 

tive  combs  preserved  for  the  purpose,  and  thus  renew  the  wax  of 
the  brood  area  periodically.  On  account  of  the  prolusion  of  the 
bloom,  the  flow  is  at  times  extraordinarily  abundant;  but  as  the  late- 
ness of  the  season  frequently  causes  unfavorable  weather  conditions, 
the  crop  is  an  uncertain  one. 


Fig.  73.     Hedge  nettle. 
(Photographed  by   Prof.   Hottes.) 

"Heather  honey  sells  for  about  double  the  price  obtained  for  any 
other  kind  in  this  country.  While  a  great  part  of  the  flower,  clover 
and  lime  honey  brings  the  apiarist  only  18  cents  per  pound,  heather 
frequently  fetches  him  36  cents.     While,  too,  the  other  kind  drags  on 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  123 

the  market,  heather  honey  sells  readily  and  is  often  disposed  of  be- 
fore it  comes  off  the  hives.  Retail  prices  in  warehouses  in  Edinburg 
and  London  are  often  as  high  as  48  to  60  cents  per  section."— October 
1,  1910. 

In  November,  1913,  C.  P.  Dadant,  editor  of  the  American  Bee  Journal, 
wrote  as  follows  concerning  heather  in  southern  France,  seen  by  him  dur- 
ing his  visit  to  Europe  in  1913: 

"I  had  often  heard  of  the  'Landes'  of  Gascony,  but  thought  them 
low,  sandy  plains.  They  are  rolling  hills  instead,  and  extend  for  scores 
of  miles   along  the   Gulf  of  Gascony. 

"The  growth  upon  the  'Landes'  is  confined  to  numerous  ferns, 
scrubby  pines  and  cork  oaks,  with  a  very  thick  undergrowth  of 
heather.  Just  now  the  heather  is  in  its  fullest  bloom  (September),  and 
there  are  perhaps  20  different  varieties,  ranging  from  the  palest  pink 
to  almost  red  and  deep  yellow  in  color.  It  is  a  mass  of  flowers  upon 
which  the  bees  work  from  June  until  frost,  which  comes  very  late, 
usually  not  before  November.  So  we  may  readily  call  this  the  eldo- 
rado  of  beekeeping.  There  is  only  one  dark  side  to  the  picture — the 
heather  honey  is  dark  in  color,  a  deep  amber,  strong  in  flavor  and 
almost  impossible  to  extract  with  the  honey  extractor.  Here  I  ascer- 
tained positively  what  I  already  suspected,  that  when  speaking  of  nec- 
tar containing  75  per  cent  of  water,  we  should  confine  ourselves  to 
the  nectar  of  our  moist  prairies.  I  am  told  that  much  of  the  nectar 
harvested  from  heather,  in  this  dry,  sandy  soil,  is  too  thick  at  the  end 
of  the  first  day  to  be   thrown   out  readily." 

HEATHER,  see  also   Eriogonum. 

HEDGE  NETTLE  or  WOUNDWORT   (Stachys). 

The  hedge  nettles  are  herbs  with  flowers  in  terminal  spikes  as  shown 
in  Fig.  73.  The  corollas  are  two-lipped  and  Stachys  agraria  is  commonly 
known  as  "mint"  in  the  Rio  Grande  Valley.  At  several  places  in  the  ex- 
treme south  part  of  Texas  the  author  heard  reports  of  surplus  honey  from 
this   source   and   from   related   species. 

Richter  lists  three  species,  Stachys  ajugoides,  the  white  hedge  nettle, 
Stachys   albens,   and    Stachys   bullata,   as    yielding   honey    in    California. 

Other  species  are  common  to  the  Eastern  States  from  Ontario  south 
to  the  Gulf  States. 

HELENIUM,   see    Bitterweed. 
HELIANTHUS,   see   Sunflower. 

HELIOTROPE   (Heliotropium). 

The  cultivated  heliotrope  and  also  the  wild  heliotrope  (Heliotropium 
curassavicum)  are  listed  by  Richter  as  sources  of  honey  in  California. 
There  is  also  an  occasional  mention  of  heliotrope  as  a  source  of  nectar  in 
the  bee  magazines,  but  probably  it  is  not  important. 

HERCULES  CLUB  or  ANGELICA  TREE  (Aralia  spinosa). 

Hercules  club  or  angelica  tree  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree  common  to 
damp  borders  of  the  woods  and  river  banks  from  Virginia  to  Missouri, 
and  south  to  Florida  and  Louisiana.     The  flowers  are  white  and  appear  in 


124 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


early  summer.     It  is   reported  as  yielding  nectar   abundantly,  though   not 
often  as  a  source  of  surplus. 


HERON'S   BILL,  see  Pin  Clover. 
HETEROMELES,  see  Christmas   Berry. 

HICKORY   (Hicoria). 

The  hickories  are  an  important  group  of  forest  trees  of  wide  distri- 
bution. They  are  of  special  interest  to  the  beekeepers  as  sources  of  large 
amounts  of  honeydew  from  aphis,  which  are  frequenty  to  be  found  on 
the  leaves.    These  trees  are  important  for  pollen,  also,  in  many  localities. 

HIMALAYA  BERRY,  see  Blackberry. 

HOARHOUND    (Marrubium    vulgare). 

Hoarhound  (Fig.  74)  is  a  well-known  plant,  introduced  from  Europe, 
which  has  become  naturalized  from  Canada  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  plant  is  perennial,  flowering  from  July  to   September.     It   occurs   in 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  125 

waste  places,  along  roadsides  and  near  dwellings  over  a  wide  scope  of 
country. 

It  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  nectar  in  places  in  the  Arkansas  Val- 
ley in  Kansas,  also  in  portions  of  Texas.  The  honey  is  dark  amber  and 
strong  in  flavor.  Beekeepers  report  it  as  important  at  Seguin,  Texas.  Re- 
ports of  honey  from  this  source  come  from  widely  separated  localities 
from  the  Eastern  States  to  California. 

Richter  lists  it  as  blooming  in  May  and  June  in  southern  California, 
but  at  the  usual  period  further  north.  He  reports  that  Ventura  and  Los 
Angeles  Counties  produce  hoarhound  in  considerable  quantities,  but  that 
it  is  regarded  with  disfavor  in  the  sage  districts  because  a  small  quantity 
of  this  honey,  mixed  with  the  sage,  impairs  the  color  and  flavor  of  the 
latter. 

Wherever  plentiful,  hoarhound  may  be  expected  to  yield  some  honey, 
and  in  many  places  it  yields  surplus  in  quantity.  Although  not  of  the  best 
quality,  it  is  still  an  important  honey  plant. 

HOARY  VERBENA,  see  Vervain. 
HOG   GUM,   see   Poisonwood. 

HOLLY   (Ilex). 

The  holly  family  is  a  large  one,  with  representatives  in  Europe,  Asia 
and  South  America,  as  well  as  North  America.  There  are  more  than  a 
dozen  species  on  this  continent,  most  of  them  common  to  the  Southeastern 
States.  The  common  holly  (Ilex  opaca)  is  found  from  Massachusetts  and 
New  York  south  to  Florida  and  west  to  Arkansas  and  Texas.  It  is  re- 
ported as  a  valuable  source  of  nectar  in  most  of  the  Southern  States.  The 
Myrtle-leaf  dahoon  holly  (Ilex  myrtifolia)  occurs  from  North  Carolina  to 
Florida   and  western   Louisiana. 

The  holly  trees  bloom  in  May,  and  in  Alabama,  Georgia  and  Missis- 
sippi are  reported  as  yielding  rapidly  for  a  short  period  of  time,  usually 
three   to  ten   days. 

The  deciduous  holly  or  privet  (Ilex  decidua),  of  the  Southeast,  is 
known  in  Texas  as  possum  haw  or  bearberry.  It  ranges  from  southern 
Virginia  to  Florida  and  west  to  Missouri  and  Texas.  It  blooms  early 
and  is  reported  as  yielding  well  for  a  short  period. 

The  yaupon  (Ilex  caroliniana)  Trelease,  is  frequently  reported  as  a 
source  of  honey  by  Texas  beekeepers,  though  Scholl  lists  it  as  unimport- 
ant. 

The  gallberry  (Ilex  glabra)  is  probably  the  most  important  source  of 
honey  of  the  group,  especially  in  the  Gulf  region.     (See  Gallberry). 

HOLLYHOCK    (Althaea   rosea). 

The  hollyhock  is  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated  garden  flowers.  It  is  a 
native  of  China  and  is  to  be  found  in  every  garden  of  old  fashioned  flow- 
ers. Wherever  found,  the  bees  seek  it  eagerly,  and  apparently  it  secretes 
nectar  freely. 


126  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


HONEYDEW. 


Such  material  as  the  bees  may  store  as  honey,  which  is  not  secured 
from  the  nectaries  of  plants,  is  usually  spoken  of  as  honeydew.  There 
are  numerous  exudations  of  plants  which  attract  the  bees  and  which  can 
hardly  be  regarded  as  nectar,  to  which  the  term  honeydew  may  well  be 
applied. 

The  main  source  of  honeydew,  however,  is  from  insects  rather  than 
from  plants.  Aphids,  scale  insects  and  leaf  hoppers  yield  this  sugar  in 
great  abundance.  These  sucking  insects  are  often  found  on  various  trees 
or  plants  in  large  colonies,  feeding  on  the  sap;  while  bees  and  ants  gather 
lo  feed  upon  their  excretions.  At  times  aphids  are  so  abundant  that  they 
eject  honeydew  in  such  quantity  as  to  cover  the  leaves  on  lower  levels 
with  the  sticky  substance,  till  the  drops  give  the  impression  that  it  might 
have  rained.  The  bees  gather  honeydew  readily  in  the  absence  of  a  nat- 
ural honeyflow,  carry  it  to  the  hive  and  seal  it  in  their  combs  the  same  as 
iioney. 

The  quality  of  most  honeydew  is  inferior  and  it  brings  a  low  price  in 
the  markets,  being  in  most  demand  for  baking  purposes.  Since  there  is  a 
much  larger  percentage  of  gums  in  honeydew  than  in  honey  it  makes  a 
poor  food  for  winter  stores.  The  excess  matter  clogs  the  intestines  of 
the  bees,  and  where  they  are  confined  on  such  stores  for  long  periods 
without  an  opportunity  for  cleansing  flight,  a  heavy  mortality  results. 

There  are  hundreds  of  references  to  honeydew  in  the  beekeeping  lit- 
erature. A  few  are  given  here  to  indicate  the  extent  to  which  bees  gather 
this   insect   product: 

"The  most  copious  flow  of  honeydew  I  ever  saw  was  in  1897.  It 
was  from  the  pine.  In  early  morning  and  late  in  the  evening  it  could 
be  seen  dripping  from  the  leaves,  till  all  the  leaves  and  even  the  bare 
ground  beneath  them  were  covered  with  the  nectar.  The  bees 
swarmed  over  the  trees  and  the  hives  were  filled  as  I  had  never  seen 
them  before.  The  honey  was  light  amber  and  of  fine  flavor,  and  gave 
my  customers  the  best  of  satisfaction.  While  this  flow  was  on,  there 
was  scarcely  any  honeydew  to  be  found  except  on  the  pines,  and  every 
pine  was  dripping  with  it." — C.  C.  Parsons,  Alabama.  American  Bee 
Journal,  page  546,  1899. 

"We  have  had  the  heaviest  honeydew  flow  ever  known  in  this 
part  of  the  State.  We  have  tons  of  the  stuff." — Scholl.  American  Bee 
Journal,  August,  1910. 

"My  bees  stored  a  quantity  of  honeydew  which  granulated  in  the 
combs  as  fast  as  stored." — South  Carolina.  American  Bee  Journal, 
August,  1910. 

"Of  250  colonies  of  bees  in  this  town  last  fall  there  are  not  more 
than  20  left.  It  is  not  the  winter  that  kills  the  bees,  but  poor  honey. 
Honeydew  is  half  an  inch  deep  all  over  my  honeyhouse  floor;  it  soured 
and  ran  out  of  the  combs  where  I  packed  up  my  hives.  The  bees  will 
not  touch  the  horrid  stuff,  nor  can  I  get  a  swarm  to  go  into  a  hive 
with  one  frame  of  it  on  one  side,  and  good  clean  combs  and  frames 
of  brood  for  the  rest."— Vermont.  American  Bee  Journal,  page  458, 
1904. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


127 


"Bees  are  working  on  honeydew,  the  trees  just  glistening  with  it. 
I  have  several  hundred  pounds  of  it  in  the  supers.  It  is  bad  looking 
stuff,  not  fit  to  eat  or  sell." — Iowa.  American  Bee  Journal,  page  537, 
1904. 


Fig.   75.     Hops  furnish  pollen,  but  are   not  important  to  the  beekeeper. 

Not  all  honeydew  is  of  such  bad  color  and  flavor.  There  are  numer- 
ous reports  of  honeydew  of  such  flavor  and  quality  that  it  finds  a  ready 
sale  in  competition  with  good  honey.  However,  it  is  usually  unsatisfac- 
tory for  winter  stores  for  the  bees,  regardless  of  its  source. 


HONEY  LOCUST  (Gleditsia  triacanthos).     THORNY  LOCUST. 

The  honey  locust  is  a  well-known  tree  from  Pennsylvania  and  On- 
tario to  Florida  and  westward  to  Texas  and  Kansas.  It  prefers  rich 
bottom  lands,  seldom  being  found  on  dry  hillsides.  The  tree  has  spreading 
branches  and  very  long,  red  brown  thorns.  The  thorns  are  often  branched 
and  sometimes  nearly  a  foot  in  length.  At  times  they  cover  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  in  great  abundance.     The   flowers  appear   in   May  or  June. 

While  the  honey  locust  is  the  source  of  considerable  nectar,  it  is  not 
equal   to   the   black   locust   (Robinia  pseudo-acacia).      (See   Locust.) 

The  two  species  are  often  confused,  although  the  long  thorns  peculiar 
to   the  honey  locust  should   distinguish   it   readily. 

There  are  numerous  reports  to  the  effect  that  the  bees  work  freely 
on  honey  locust,  but  it  is  seldom  regarded  as  a  source  of  surplus,  while 
the  black  locust  yields  abundantly  for  a  short  period,  under  favorable 
conditions. 


128 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


HONEY  POD,  see   Mesquite. 

HONEYSUCKLE   (Lonicera). 

The  honeysuckles  are  rich  in  nectar,  but  most  species  have  corolla 
tubes  of  such  depth  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  the  honeybee.  There 
are  numerous  reports  of  the  bees  seeking  nectar  from  such  species  as  they 
can  reach,  and  from  Minnesota  come  reports  of  the  bush  honeysuckle  as 
an  important  plant.     (See  Bush  Honeysuckle). 

HOPS   (Humulus   Lupulus). 

The  common  bop  plant  is  too  well  known  to  need  description.  It  is 
common  from  New  England  to  British  Columbia  and  southward.  It  is 
very  generally  cultivated  for  making  yeast  and  for  medicinal  purposes. 
The  small  greenish  flowers  are  wind-pollenated.  It  furnishes  pollen  in 
abundance,  but  no  nectar.     (Fig.  75). 


Fig.   76.     Horsemint   (Monarda  punctata.)      The  source  of  the  well-known  horsemint   honey. 


HOP-TREE   (Ptelea  trifoliata),  SHRUBBY  TREFOIL. 

The  hop-tree  occurs  from  New  England  and  Ontario  south  to  Florida 
and  westward  to  Michigan,  Illinois  and  Missouri  to  central  Texas.  It  is 
a  shrub  or  small  tree  known  also  as  wahoo  and  quinine  tree.  The  bitter 
fruit  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  hops.  The  flowers  have  a  dis- 
agreeable odor.     Scholl  lists  the  honey  yield  as  good,  and  very  good,  in 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


129 


favorable  seasons,  where  the  shrub  is  abundant.  The  California  hop-tree 
(Ptelea  crenulata)  occurs  in  the  western  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  and  in  the  Coast  ranges.  Its  bloom  has  an  agreeable  aromatic 
odor.  The  author  can  find  no  reports  that  indicate  it  is  regarded  as  im- 
portant to  the  beekeepers  of  that  region. 

There  are  numerous  reports   to  the  effect  that  the  hop-tree  is  a  good 
source  of  nectar  in  the  Eastern  States. 

HORSE  CHESTNUT,  see  Buckeye. 


'— ■   ' 

■ 

■ft  W  «£& 

& 

^^        ^Jtb 

Fig.   77.     Wild   Bergamot    (Monarda  fistulosa).     The   corolla   tub 
are   usually   too   deep  for  the  bees  to   reach   the   nectar. 


HORSEMINT    (Monarda). 

There  are  several  species  of  horsemint,  known  also  as  bee  balm,  wild 
bergamot,  etc.  Some  of  the  species  are  represented  from  New  England 
to  Texas.  Figure  77  shows  M.  fistulosa,  the  wild  bergamot  of  the  North. 
The  corolla  tubes  are  so  deep  that,  as  a  rule,  the  bees  are  unable  to  reach 
the  nectar.  In  some  cases  it  is  reported  as  yielding  freely  and  the  author 
has  seen  times  when  the  bees  were  apparently  getting  considerable  nectar 
from  this  species.  Whether  the  nectar  secretion  is  unusually  abundant  or 
the  corolla  tubes  shortened  more  than  is  commonly  the  case,  the  author 
will  not  venture  an  opinion.  In  parts  of  Wisconsin,  M.  punctata  (Fig.  76), 
according  to  D.  L.  H.  Pammel,  can  be  depended  upon  to  yield  an  abun- 
dance of  nectar  every  season.    This  is  probably  the  most  important  species 


130 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


to  the  beekeeper.  It  is  found  more  or  less  commonly  on  sandy  soil  from 
New  York  to  Minnesota  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  In  Texas  it  is 
the  source  of  very  large  quantities  of  surplus  honey  in  seasons  following 
wet  winters  and  springs.  The  honey  is  A  clear  light  amber  with  a  de- 
cided minty  flavor.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  sources  in  Texas, 
where,  together  with  M.  clinopodioides,  it  is  regarded  very  highly.  In  the 
Arkansas  Valley  of  southern  Kansas  horsemint  is  also  important,  yielding 
as  high  as  fifty  pounds  of  surplus  per  colony. 


Fig.   7S.     Hound's  tongue. 

HOUND'S-TONGUE  (Cynoglossum  officinale). 

Hound's-tongue  is  a  weed  introduced  from  Europe.  It  is  now  common 
in  parts  of  Canada  and  the  Northwestern  States  and  occurs  in  Missouri 
and  Arkansas,  and  from  the  Ohio  Valley  to  the  Carolinas  and  north 
Georgia.  It  is  named  from  the  shape  and  texture  of  the  leaf.  The  illus- 
tration (Fig.  78)  was  photographed  in  open  woods  near  Guelph,  Ontario. 
There  it  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  good  honey  plant. 

HUAJILLA,  see  Acacia. 


HUCKLEBERRY  (Gaylussacia). 

There  are  several  species  of  huckleberry  common  to  the  Eastern 
States.  The  common  huckleberry  of  the  markets,  the  black  huckleberry 
(Gaylussacia  baccata)  is  common  from  Eastern  Canada  to  Minnesota  and 
south  to  Georgia,  in  rocky  woodlands  and  swamps.  This  species  also  occurs 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


131 


en   the  Pacific   Coast,  and  W.  J.   Sheppard   reports   it   is   a   honey  plant   in 
British   Columbia.     (Fig.  79). 

Lovell  reports  that  it  is  very  abundant  on  Cape  Cod  and  yields   every 
year. 

HUISACHE,  see  Acacia. 
HYDROPHYLLUM,  see  Virginia  Waterleaf. 


IDAHO— Honey  Sources  of. 

The  principal  sources  of  honey  in  northern  Idaho  are  fireweed,  sno\ 


Fig.   79.     Black   huckleberry. 

berry,  alsike  and  white   clovers.     Secondary  sources  are  dandelion,  Indian 
hemp,  grindelia  and  goldenrod. — H.  A.  Scullen. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  State  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover  are  the 
source  of  large  quantities  of  surplus.  Minor  plants  are  probably  similar  to 
those  of  Colorado. 


132 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


ILEX,  see  Holly,  also  Gallberry. 
INDIAN  BEAN,  see  Catalpa. 

INDIAN  CORN  or  MAIZE  (Zea  mays). 

Indian  corn  is  native  to  North  America  and  was  cultivated  by  the  In- 
dians at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  continent.  It  has  become  one  of 
the  most  important  grain  crops  and  is  grown  in  large  acreage.  It  furnishes 
an  abundance  of  pollen  in  mid-summer  and  the  bees  work  upon  the  tassels 
so   freely   as    to   give   rise   to   a   very  general   impression    that    it    furnishes 


Fig.   SO.      Indian   currant  in  bloom. 

honey  in  abundance.  At  times,  aphides  are  to  be  found  upon  the  stalk  and 
the  bees  also  get  a  sweet  substance  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  While 
on  infrequent  occasions  the  bees  may  get  honeydew  from  Indian  corn,  its 
principal  value  to  the  beekeeper  is  as  a  source  of  pollen. 

"If  the  weather  is  favorable  for  the  reproduction  of  plant  lice,  we 
may  always  expect  them  to  attack  the  tassel,  making  the  top  leaves 
sticky  and  discolored.  I  have  seen  the  bees  pile  on  the  tassel  until 
you  could  scarcely  see  anything  but  the  bees  gathering  this  honeydew. 
The  honey  thus  obtained  is  dark,  but  of  very  fair  flavor." — Wm.  R. 
Howard,  White  Rock,  Texas.  American  Bee  Journal,  page  225.  May, 
1880. 

W.  K.  Morrison,  writing  in  Gleanings,  states  as  follows  regarding  corn: 


"Corn  is  not  generally  set  down  as  a  yielder  of  the  nectar  sublime, 
but  in  tropical  countries  it  is  a  very  valuable  honey  plant,  showing 
the  importance  of  locality,  showing  also  that  corn  is  a  native  of  the 
tropics.     (Aug.  1,  1905.) 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


133 


INDIAN  CURRANT  (Symphoricarpos  orbiculatus). 

The  Indian  currant,  also  known  as  coral  berry  or  buckbrush,  is  a 
widely  distributed  shrub  that  furnishes  considerable  nectar  in  late  summer. 
It  may  be  found  in  the  woodland  borders  and  open  forest  from  New  York, 
west  to  the  Dakotas,  south  to  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  and  from  New  Jer- 
sey south  along  the  mountains  to  Georgia  and  Alabama. 

The  blossoms  arc  very  small  and  inconspicuous  (Fig.  80),  but  where  the 
plant  is  abundant  it  is  much  sought  by  the  bees.  In  southeastern  Iowa, 
the  season  of  1914  was  a  very  poor  one  for  the  bees,  and  many  colonies  re- 
quired feeding  to  get  them  through  the  winter.     In  a  few  localities,  where 


-Ii.   showing   fruit. 


buckbrush  abounds,  they  not  only  were  well  prepared  for  winter,  but 
stored  some  surplus.  The  blooming  season  is  July  and  August  in  most 
Northern  States,  so  that  the  clover  harvest  is  usually  nearly  over  when  it 
comes  on.  Figure  81  shows  the  bunches  of  red  berries  that  hang  on  the 
bushes  after  the  leaves  have  withered  and  dropped,  which  will  be  in- 
stantly recognized  by  anyone  familiar  with  the  plant.  These  berries  are 
often  about  the  only  winter  food  available  for  small  birds  when  the  ground 
is  covered  with   snow. 

The  snowberry  (S.  racemosus)  (Fig.  82).  is  a  related  species  with  white 
berries.  It  occurs  from  New  England  west  to  Nebraska  and  Dakota,  also 
on  the  North  Pacific  Coast.  The  plant  is  quite  similar  to  the  red-berried 
species  in  habit  and  growth  and  is  also  often  called  buckbrush. 


134 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


ILLINOIS— Honey    Sources   of. 

There  are  but  few  important  honey  plants  in  Illinois.  It  is  a  clover 
State.  White  clover,  alsike  and  sweet  clover  furnish  the  principal  sources 
of  surplus  on  the  uplands,  with  heartsease  and  Spanish  needle  on  the  low 
lands.  Maples  and  willows  are  important  for  early  spring  nectar,  followed 
by  fruit  bloom  and  dandelion.  There  are  numerous  minor  sources  which 
add  something  to  the  product  of  the  hive,  but  the  above  short  list  includes 
the  important  sources  of  surplus  honey.  In  a  few  localities  boneset  and 
asters  yield  some  surplus  in  the  fall.  Basswood,  once  important,  has  dis- 
appeared from  most  of  the  honey-producing  districts,  where  it  formerly 
produced  large  surplus.    For  list  of  minor  plants,  see  Indiana. 


Fig.   82.     Snowberry  in  bloom. 


INDIANA— Honey  and  Pollen  Plants  of. 

Skunk  cabbage,  March. 
Silver  maple,  March-April. 
Red  maple,  March-April. 
Box  elder,  March-April. 
Willow,  March-April. 
Elm,  March-April. 
Judas  tree,  April-May. 
Dandelion,  April-September. 
Crowfoot,  April-May. 
Sugar  maple,  April-May. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  135 

Fruit  trees,  April-May. 

Ground  ivy,  May-August. 

Currant  and  gooseberry,  May. 

Buckeye,  May. 

Grapevine,  May. 

Black  locust,  May. 

Honey  locust,  May-June. 

Poplar   (tulip-tree),  May-June. 

Raspberry,  May-June. 

Blackberry,   May-June. 

White  clover,  May-June-July. 

Alsike,  June-July. 

Red   clover,  June-July. 

Sweet  clover,  June  till  frost. 

Basswood,  June  or  July. 

Mustard,  June  till  frost. 

Button  bush,  July. 

Teasel,  July. 

Catnip,  July  and  August. 

Cucumber,  melons,  etc.,  July-August. 

Marsh  milkweed,  July-August. 

Sumac,  August. 

Boneset,  July  till  frost. 

Figwort,  July  till  frost. 

Buckwheat,  August. 

Ironweed,  July  till  frost. 

Jewelweed,  August-September. 

Smartweed,  August-September. 

Goldenrod,  August  till  frost. 

Asters,  August  till  frost. 

Marsh   sunflower,  August   till  frost. 

Spanish  needle  (Coreopsis),  August. 

Beggarticks,  August. 

— Second  Annual  Report,  Inspector  of  Apiaries,  Indiana. 

INDIAN  FIG,  see  Prickly  Pear. 
INDIAN  HEMP,  see  Dogbane. 
1NKBERRY,  see  Gallberry. 

IOWA— Honey  Sources  of. 

Willows  and  maples  furnish  first  nectar  of  importance  in  early  spring. 
This  is  followed  by  the  blooming  of  the  wild  plums  and  cultivated  fruits. 
Next  dandelion  blooms  in  profusion  for  most  of  the  time  intervening  be- 
tween fruit  bloom  and  white  clover.  White  clover  is  the  main  source  of 
surplus  over  the  entire  State,  excepting  a  few  small  areas  where  sweet 
clover  exceeds  it  in  importance.  Alsike  is  important  in  some  sections.  On 
rough  lands  along  streams  buckbrush  or  Indian  currant  gives  surplus  in 


136 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


midsummer.  Heartsease  is  valuable  on  low  lands  over  the  State  and  on 
higher  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  ploughed  fields  in  wet  seasons.  Asters, 
boneset,  Spanish  needle  and  numerous  other  fall  flowers  add  something 
to  the  production  of  the  hives,  but  in  few  localities  can  be  said  to  be  im- 
portant. Basswood  was  once  of  great  value  to  Iowa  beekeepers,  but  has 
largely  been   cut   down. 

IRONWEED    (Vernonia). 

There  are  many  species  of  the  ironweeds  to  be  found  in  many  coun- 
tries. They  are  common  in  Asia  and  Africa,  as  well  as  North  America. 
They  are  common  from  New  England  south  to  Florida  and  west  to  Dakota 
and  Texas.  Figure  84  shows  the  flowers  of  the  western  ironweed  (Ver- 
nonia fasciculata)  and  Figure  83  a  clump  of  the  common  ironweed  (Ver- 
nonia Baldwini).  In  the  middle  west  they  grow  very  commonly  in  pas- 
tures, and  the  purple  blossoms   are   very  conspicuous   in   late   summer.     At 


Fig.   83.     Clump   of  common  ironweed  in  bloom, 
times   the  bees   work   them   very   eagerly,  but   it   is   doubtful  whether    they 
are  often  of  much  value  as  a  source  of  surplus. 

IRONWOOD,  see  Coma,  also  Titi. 
IVYWOOD,  see  Laurel. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


137 


JACKASS  CLOVER  or  STINKWEED  (Wislizenia  refracta). 

Jackass  clover  or  stinkweed  is  a  rank  scented  annual  plant  with  yellow 
flowers,  growing  two  to  six  feet  high.  It  is  common  from  Sacramento  to 
Lathrop  and  southward  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  according  to  Jepson. 
— Flora  of  Middle  Western  California. 

It  is  an  important  honey  plant  in  the   interior  valleys,  where   it  is  re- 


Fig.   84.      Blossoms  of  western  ironweed. 


ported  as  blooming  freely  only  every  other  year.  The  blooming  period 
is  from  August  to  December.  C.  R.  Snyder,  of  Selma,  regards  it  as  a  main 
source.  He  reports  as  high  as  100  pounds  of  surplus  per  colony.  He  usu- 
ally extracts  two  or  three  times  from  this  source  in  September,  and  has 
extracted  as  late  as  December.  A  heavy  rain  or  a  frost  will  stop  the  flow. 
The  honey  is  light  and  of  good  quality.  A  sample  presented  to  the  au- 
thor is  a  light  amber  with  a  peculiar  flavor,  unlike  our  eastern  honey. 
The  flavor  reminds  one  somewhat  of  butter-scotch  candy.  It  is  rather 
strong,  but  agreeable. 

Richter  comments   on   this   plant   as  follows: 


138 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


"Honey  water  white,  mild  in  flavor  and  of  good  body;  granulates 
in  three  to  six  months,  when  it  resembles  a  paste  made  from  powdered 
sugar.  The  very  fact  that  it  is  spreading  so  rapidly  over  the  poor 
lands  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  and  that  it  produces  the  only  water- 
white  honey,  with  the  exception  of  blue-curls,  as  far  as  the  writer 
knows,  that  is  produced  in  the  late  fall,  has  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
jackass  clover  will  be  one  of  the  greatest  honey-producing  plants  of 
the  State,  and  may  in  future  rank  next  to  sage  and  alfalfa.  During  the 
fall  of  1909  a  Fresno  beekeeper  reported  that  he  extracted  thirty 
pounds  per  colony  each  week  for  six  weeks  from  this  source.  Another 
beekeeper  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  relates  that  during  the  jackass 
clover  flow  the  noise  was  terrific,  and  that  home-coming  bees  flew  so 
slowly  that  they  could  be  picked  out  of  the  air.  It  was  Henry  T 
Christman,  of  Colinga,  who  first  became  aware  of  its  value  as  a  honey 
plant  and  gave   it   its  present  name." 

JASMINE,  See  Yellow  Jasmine. 
JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE,  see  Sunflower. 

JEWEL-WEED  or  Touch-Me-Not  (Impatiens). 

The   jewel-weed    (Fig.   85)    is    common    in    wet   places    and    along   small 


Jewel    weed,    or   touch-me-not. 


streams  in  shady  situations.  Some  are  to  be  found  from  Alaska  to  New 
England  and  south  to  Florida  and  Louisiana.  .  The  plant  has  an  odd 
hanging  blossom,  as  shown  in  the  picture.  It  is  often  called  touch-me- 
not,  from  the  sudden  bursting  of  the  seed  pod  when  touched. 

It  is  usually  regarded  as  a  bumblebee  flower  rather  than  a  bee  flower, 
but  is  reported  as  a  source  of  honey  in  both  Michigan  and  Wisconsin, 
where  it  is  quite  common  in  places. 


JOE-PYE  WEED,  see  Boneset. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  139 


JOINTED  CHARLOCK,  see  Radi 
JUDAS-TREE,  see  Red-Bud. 
JUNE-BUD,  see   Red-Bud. 


K 


KANSAS— Honey    Sources    of. 

Sweet  clover  probably  ranks  first  as  a  honey  plant  in  Kansas.  It 
yields  surplus  honey  from  east  to  west  in  the  State  and  succeeds  on  high, 
dry  land  as  well  as  in  the  river  valleys.  In  some  parts  of  the  State,  sur- 
plus honey  is  secured  from  no  other  crop.  In  the  Arkansas  Valley  alfalfa 
is  also  important  and  yields  freely.  Hoarhound,  heartsease  and  wild  sun- 
flowers also  yield  surplus.  White  clover  is  uncertain  in  most  of  Kansas 
and  only  yields  honey  occasionally  under  favorable  conditions.  The  Ar- 
kansas Valley  is  excellent  beekeeping  territory  and  the  yields  there  com- 
pare favorably  with  the  best  elsewhere.  The  first  nectar  comes  from  soft 
maples  in  late  February  or  March.  Elms  furnish  early  pollen  and  willows 
along  the  streams  furnish  both  nectar  and  pollen.  There  are  many  or- 
chards in  Kansas  and  fruit  bloom  is  important,  surplus  occasionally  being 
gathered  from  apple  blossoms.  Horsemint  is  important  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  State,  as  high  as  50  pounds  per  colony  of  surplus  being  re- 
ported from  this  source. 

KENTUCKY— Honey    Sources    of. 

H.  R.  Niswonger,  in  Circular  69,  Extension  Division  of  the  College  of 
Agriculture,  gives  the  following  as  important  sources  of  nectar  in  Ken- 
tucky: 

"Fruit  trees  and  bush  fruits  of  considerable  importance,  sometimes 
yielding  surplus. 

"Crimson  clover,  very  important,  coming  before  white  clover. 

"Alsike  clover,  comparing  well  with  the  yield,  from  white  clover. 

"White  clover  usually  yields  a  heavy  surplus. 

"Red  clover,  sometimes  worked  by  bees  on  second  blooming. 

"Sweet  clover,  one  of  the  most  important,  blooming  for  four  weeks 
or  more. 

"Sour-wood,  one  of  the  principal  sources  in  the  mountain  sections. 

"Linden,   also   important    in   mountain    sections. 

"Buckwheat,   important,   coming  when    there   is   a   dearth   of   other 
plants   in  bloom. 

"Goldenrod  yields  an  abundance  of  nectar. 

"Aster   yields    in    late    autumn,   often    sufficient    to    carry   the   bees 
through  the  winter,  sometimes  some  surplus,  also. 

"Many  forest   trees   infested  with   plant   lice  yield   large   quantities 
of  honeydew. 

In  addition  to  the  above  list  the  following  are  taken  from  a  contribu- 
tion to  American  Bee  Journal  by  Mr.  N.  P.  Allen,  of  Smith's  Grove,  Ken- 
tucky: 


140  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

"Elm,  elder,  hazel  and  willow  for  early  pollen. 
"Maples. 

"Red-bud  or  Judas  tree. 
"Black   locust. 
"Blackberry  and  raspberry. 

"Poplar  (tulip-tree),  begins  to  bloom  about  the  middle  of  May  and 
yields  more  honey  than  any  forest  tree. 
"Prickly  ash  and  sumac. 
"Yellow-wood  and  coral  berry  in  July." 

KINNIKINICK  (Rhus  virens). 

Kinnikinick  is  a  sumac  which  grows  from  the  Colorado  River  to  the 
Rio  Grande  and  westward.  The  Indians  and  Mexicans  mix  the  leaves  with 
tobacco  and  smoke  them.  It  grows  in  large  quantity  in  the  hills  some 
distance  north  of  Uvalde,  Texas,  and  blooms  from  September  till  frost, 
with  sufficient  rain.  Local  beekeepers  report  that  as  high  as  sixty  pounds 
of  honey  per  colony  is  sometimes  secured  from  this  source.  The  honey 
is  said  to  be  green  in  color,  with  a  rank,  strong  taste,  and  does  not  granu- 
late. The  combs  are  capped  very  white  when  the  bees  are  working  on 
kinnikinick.  This  should  not  be  confused  with  the  species  of  dogwood 
which  is  also  commonly  called  by  the  same  name.  There  are  several 
species  of  sumac  which  are  valuable  honey  plants.  (See  sumac;  also  dog- 
wood). 

KNAPWEED,  see  Star  Thistle. 

KNOCKAWAY  or  ANAQUA  (Ehretia  elliptica). 

The  anaqua  is  a  common  tree  with  small  white  flowers  in  open  pani- 
cles and  oval  leaves,  which  is  common  from  New  Braunfels,  Texas  south 
to  the  lower  Rio  Grande.  It  is  commonly  reported  as  a  valuable  source  of 
nectar  by  Texas  beekeepers. 

KNOTWEED,  see  Heartsease. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


141 


LADIES'    EAR    DROPS,   see    Brunnichia. 
LADY'S  THUMB,  see   Heartsease. 
LAMBKILL,  see  Laurel. 


Fig.   86.      Sheep  laurel,  or  lambkill. 

LAUREL  (Kalmia). 

The  mountain  laurel  (Kalmia  latifolia),  also  known  as  calico-bush  or 
spoon-wood  and  in  the  Southern  States  as  poison  ivy,  is  a  common  shrub 
occurring  in  the  higher  altitudes  from  New  England  and  Ontario  south  to 
the  Gulf  States.  It  is  widely  credited  as  being  the  source  of  poisonous 
honey.  (See  Poisonous  Honey).  The  sheep  laurel  or  lambkill  (Fig.  86)  is 
a  closely  related  species  which  occurs  from  Newfoundland  and  west  to 
Michigan  and  south  to  north  Georgia.  They  are  shrubs  with  showy  flow- 
ers which  are  not  often  reported  as  important  honey  plants.  In  some 
places,   hillsides    are    covered    with    the    mountain    laurel,    which    makes    a 


142  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

pleasing  sight  when   in   bloom.     These   plants   are   so   well  known   that   a 
great  variety  of  common  names  have  become  known  in  different  localities. 
According  to  Sladen,  the  sheep  laurel  (Kalmia  angustifolia)  is  one  of 
the  important  sources  of  honey  in  Nova  Scotia. 

LAUREL-TREE,  see  Red  Bay. 
LEATHERWOOD,  see  Ti-ti. 

LEMON  (Citrus  limon). 

The  lemon  is  a  valuable  source  of  honey  in  southern  California,  though 
much  less  is  heard  of  it  than  of  orange.  It  is  cultivated  principally  in  the 
coast  region,  and  Richter  suggests  that  the  proximity  to  the  ocean  of  the 
principal  lemon  groves  may  account  for  the  fact  that  it  does  not  yield  as 
well  as  orange.  Unlike  other  fruit  trees,  it  blooms  more  or  less  continu- 
ously throughout  the  year.  This  again  would  make  its  real  value  less  ap- 
parent, since  a  plant  which  yields  a  little  nectar  for  a  long  period  of  time 
may  give  a  total  greater  than  one  which  gives  a  heavy  yield  for  a  short 
period.  It  is  noted,  also,  that  oranges  yield  less  freely  along  the  coast 
than   in  the   interior  valleys. 

LETTUCE    (Lactuca    floridana). 

Figure  87  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  height  to  which  the  wild  blue 
lettuce  grows.  It  is  common  in  the  woodland  borders,  in  rich  soil,  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Iowa  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  The  plant  produces 
hundreds  of  blue  flowers  in  late  summer  and  early  fall.  Although  it  is 
of  no  special  importance  as  a  honey  plant,  the  bees  visit  it  frequently 
and  apparently  get  some  nectar  from  its  blossoms.  In  the  South  it  is  re- 
ported as  blooming  in  May  and  June.  The  writer  does  not  recall  having 
seen  it  in  bloom  in  Iowa  earlier  than  August,  while  it  blooms  into  Sep- 
tember. There  are  a  considerable  number  of  species  of  wild  lettuce,  some 
of  which,  like  the  prickly  lettuce,  become  very  troublesome  weeds.  The 
writer  has  not  observed  the  bees  working  to  any  extent  on  any  except  the 
blue  fall  lettuce  above  described. 

LEONURUS,  see   Motherwort. 
LIGNUM-VITAE,    see    Soapbush. 
LILAC,    see    Mountain    Lilac. 

LIME  (Citrus  acida). 

The  lime  is  a  fruit  very  similar  to  the  lemon,  which  has  been  intro- 
duced to  some  extent  into  the  citrus  districts.  Since  it  is  not  generally 
grown  it  is  not  very  important,  though  it  yields  honey  freely. 

LIMETREE,  see  Basswood. 
LINDEN,  see   Basswood. 
LION'S  TAIL,  see  Motherwort. 
LIPPIA  GRASS,  see  Carpet  Grass. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


143 


Fig.   ST.     Wild   lettuce   is   a   tall   growing   plant. 

LIQUORICE    (Glycyrrhiza   lepidota). 

The  wild  liquorice  is  a  plant  of  the  pulse  family  occurring  from  Minne- 
sota to  Missouri  and  westward  to  Washington  and  Arizona.  It  is  found 
in  Colorado  and  Wyoming  at  4.000  to  8,000  feet  altitude.  It  is  reported  as 
quite  abundant  in  places  in  Wyoming,  and  some  years  as  being  a  great 
yielder  of  nectar. 

LIVE  OAK,  see  Oak. 


LOCALITY. 

The  plants   which  yield  honey  in   surplus  quantity  are   comparatively 
few  in  number.     In  the  average  locality  there  will  be  only  two  or  three 


144  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

important   sources   of   nectar,   with   a   considerable   number   of   minor   ones 
which   furnish  the  bees  with   a   partial  living  between  the   main  flows. 

As  an  example,  a  typical  Iowa  locality  may  be  mentioned.  There 
white  clover  is  the  principal  source  of  surplus  honey.  Now  and  then  some 
surplus  will  be  gathered  in  the  fall,  also,  from  heartsease.  Yet  the  list  of 
plants  which  yield  nectar  in  that  particular  neighborhood  is  a  rather  long 
one.  Were  it  not  for  these  minor  sources,  to  provide  for  the  bees  before 
and  after  the  clover  flow,  beekeeping  would  hardly  be  possible  there.  To 
begin  the  season,  fruit  trees,  apples,  cherries  and  plums,  furnish  a  liberal 
supply  of  nectar.  These  trees  bloom  early  in  spring  when  the  bees  are 
still  weak  from  the  long  winter.  If  it  were  possible  for  the  beekeeper  to 
so  conserve  the  strength  of  his  colonies  that  they  would  come  through 
the  winter  in  as  good  condition  as  they  are  in  mid-summer,  a  good  crop 
of  surplus  honey  would  be  gathered  from  fruit  bloom  in  favorable  sea- 
sons. Following  fruit  bloom,  the  dandelions  come.  There  are  several 
weeks  of  bloom  from  dandelion  and  the  bees  make  the  most  of  it.  Consid- 
erable nectar  and  an  abundance  of  pollen  are  gathered  from  dandelion,  only 
to  be  used  in  brood-rearing.  It  takes  a  large  amount  of  honey  to  rear  a 
big  force  of  bees,  and  without  strong  colonies  of  bees  profitable  crops  of 
honey  cannot  be  harvested.  It  takes  honey,  then,  to  make  bees,  and  it 
takes  bees  again  to  gather  a  big  crop  of  honey. 

The  dandelion  continues  to  bloom,  in  some  localities,  until  within  a 
short  time  of  the  opening  of  the  white  clover  flow.  In  favorable  seasons, 
when  the  clover  is  abundant  and  weather  conditions  favorable,  a  liberal 
crop  may  be  expected  from  the  clover.  Following  the  clover  there  is  a 
long  period  when  but  little  honey  is  coming  from  the  field.  In  one  neigh- 
borhood the  bees  may  be  entirely  idle,  while  a  short  distance  away  there 
may  be  sufficient  forage  to  support  the  colony.  In  the  one  location  the 
surplus  gathered  from  clover  will  be  consumed,  in  part,  to  support  the 
colony  until  the  fall  flow  from  heartsease;  in  the  other  the  bees  will  gather 
enough  from  minor  plants  to  support  them.  The  one  locality  thus  becomes 
a  good  one  for  beekeeping,  while  the  other  is  poor,  and  perhaps  they  are 
but  a  few  miles  apart. 

This  is  a  fair  example  of  general  conditions.  The  locality  may  not  be 
in  the  clover  region,  but  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  minor  plants  is 
extremely  important  to  the  beekeeper  who  would  support  his  family 
from  the  products   of  his   apiary. 

There  are  many  locations  where  the  presence  of  plants  which  yield 
pollen  abundantly  are  second  in  importance  only  to  the  plants  which  fur- 
nish the  main  honeyflow.  As  an  example,  there  are  places  along  the  Ap- 
palachicola  River,  in  Florida,  where  enormous  yields  of  surplus  honey  are 
sometimes  secured  from  tupelo,  but  where  there  is  so  little  pollen  for  the 
rest  of  the  summer  that  the  bees  suffer  seriously  for  the  lack  of  it.  In  some 
places  the  beekeepers  find  it  necessary  to  move  their  bees  to  other  loca- 
tions in  order  to  maintain  the  strength  of  their  colonies,  following  the 
flow  from  tupelo.  Thousands  of  colonies  of  bees  have  died  in  locations 
where  wonderful  yields  of  honey  have  been  harvested,  because  no  pollen 
was  available  to  enable  them  to  continue  brood-rearing. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  145 

It  often  happens  that  the  crop  will  be  a  failure  in  one  location,  while 
but  a  few  miles  away  it  would  be  possible  to  gather  a  surplus  by  moving 
the  bees.  As  an  example,  at  Hamilton,  Illinois,  in  1919,  the  clover  crop  was 
a  failure  and  the  bees  were  on  the  point  of  requiring  feed  at  the  time 
when  the  clover  harvest  should  be  coming  in.  By  moving  their  bees  from 
fifteen  to  forty  miles,  the  Dadants  were  able  to  harvest  about  forty  thou- 
sand pounds  of  honey,  instead  of  feeding  to  carry  their  bees  through  the 
winter. 

It  has  become  the  practice  of  many  California  beekeepers  to  secure 
more  than  one  crop  by  moving  their  bees  several  times  during  the  season. 
Following  the  harvest  from  one  source,  the  bees  are  moved  by  truck  to 
other  fields.  Thus  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  use  the  same  apiaries  to 
harvest  two  or  three  good  crops  in   a  single  season. 

In  like  manner  a  well-known  California  queen  breeder  has  found  it 
possible  to  greatly  increase  his  output  by  moving  his  queen-rearing  yards 
to  new  fields  when  the  nectar  supply  had  ceased  in  his  own  location. 

The  variation  in  the  supply  of  nectar  in  different  localities  is  ex- 
tremely great.  A  few  locations  will  support  several  hundred  colonies  in 
one  yard.  Other  locations  will  hardly  support  twenty  colonies  profitably. 
A  careful  study  of  the  flora  within  reach  is  most  important  to  the  bee- 
keeper. One  who  fully  understands  his  location  can  adapt  his  system  to 
his  conditions  and  succeed  where  failure  would  otherwise  result.  John  W. 
Cash,  of  north  Georgia,  had  about  eight  hundred  colonies  of  bees  in  a 
section  where  thirty  colonies  would  overstock  any  single  location.  By  es- 
tablishing a  large  number  of  apiaries  in  widely  scattered  situations,  he  was 
able  to  secure  a  surprising  uniformity  of  yield.  For  a  period  of  several 
years  he  never  secured  less  than  56  pounds  average  of  surplus  per  colony. 
At  the  same  time  his  highest  average  was  86  pounds  per  colony. 

The  combination  of  plants  which  yield  surplus  honey  with  those  which 
yield  pollen  and  those  which  furnish  some  nectar  during  the  periods  be- 
tween the  flows,  together  with  climatic  conditions,  determine  the  value  of 
a  location  for  beekeeping.  It  does  not  require  much  skill  to  secure  a  crop 
of  honey  in  a  location  where  every  condition  is  favorable,  but  the  man  who 
is  fully  acquainted  with  the  flora  will  discount  the  crops  of  the  hit-and- 
miss  apiarist  even  there.  In  the  poor  locality  it  takes  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  sources  of  honey  and  pollen,  together  with  expert  beekeeping 
to  succeed. 

LOCO  WEED  (Astragalus).     Also  called  Rattle  Weed  or  Buffalo  Bean. 

There  are  several  species  of  Astragalus,  common  to  the  Rocky  Mou- 
tain  region,  from  Manitoba  south  to  Texas,  and  west  to  California.  The 
loco,  weeds  are  herbs  with  odd-pinnate  leaves,  and  spikes  or  racemes  of 
purple,  white,  or  pale  yellow  flowers. 

Several  varieties  are  poisonous  and  are  the  source  of  heavy  losses 
among  the  stockmen  of  the  plains  and  mountain  regions.  Honey  from  loco 
is  reported  principally  from  Colorado,  where  it  is  mentioned  as  blooming 
with  horsemint,  in  May  and  June.     It  is  to  be  found  mostly  in  the  foot- 


146  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

hills  and  the  yield   is  not   dependable.     The  honey  is   reported   as   of   light 
color  and  good  flavor. 

LOCUST  (Robinia  pseudo-acacia). 

The  black  locust,  or  false  acacia,  is  a  native  tree  from  Pennsylvania  to 
Iowa  and  southward.  However,  it  has  been  widely  introduced  into  other 
States,  thus  greatly  extending  its  range.  It  is  now  to  be  found  in  many 
places  from  New  England  and  Canada  southward.  It  is  reported  as  pro- 
ducing a  surplus  of  honey  in  parts  of  California,  and  is  listed  among  the 
honey   plants   of  Texas. 


ossoms   of   black   locust,   or   false   acacia. 


The  wood  is  desirable  for  posts,  railroad  ties  and  other  purposes  re- 
quiring durability.  Large  plantations  are  often  set  for  utility  purpose:-, 
so  that  in  some  localities  the  beekeeper  may  readily  expect  a  surplus  from 
this  source.  Borers  are  a  serious  menace  to  the  life  of  this  tree,  and  whole 
plantations  of  locusts  are  sometimes  injured  by  the  insects,  which  kill  the 
branches  and  sometimes  the  bodies  of  the  trees,  causing  them  to  sprout 
again  from  the  root. 

According  to  Lovell  the  honey  is  water-white,  of  heavy  body  and  mild 
flavor.  Figure  88  shows  the  blossoms  and  leaves.  The  flowers,  it  will  be 
noted,  much  resemble  those  of  the  garden  pea. 

In  some  localities  the  tree  is  known  as  white  or  yellow  locust. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  147 

LOGWOOD    (Haematoxylon   campechianum). 

The  logwood  is  an  important  tree  common  to  the  West  Indies  and 
Central  America,  but  probably  does  not  occur  within  the  United  States. 
It  is  the  principal  source  of  vegetable  dyes,  most  of  which  have  been  dis- 
placed  by   chemical   products. 

It  grows  in  dense  forests  over  large  areas  and  in  Jamaica  is  regarded 
as  the  principal  source  of  honey.  When  conditions  are  favorable  enor- 
mous crops  of  honey  are  harvested,  single  colonies  sometimes  gathering 
several  hundred  pounds.  Since  the  forests  are  often  miles  in  extent,  large 
apiaries  can  be  supported  in  a  single  location.  The  plant  usually  blooms 
twice  during  the  year,  once  in  November  and  the  second  time  near  the 
holiday  period.  That  weather  conditions  affect  the  flow  from  logwood  as 
readily  as  that  of  other  plants  will  be  seen  by  the  following  quotations 
from  American  Bee  Journal  of  June  8,  1905: 

"I  noticed  unmistakable  evidences  of  an  almost  universal  bloom, 
and  about  ten  days  later  it  came  out  in  all  its  glory.  It  was  truly  a 
magnificent  sight,  and  although  the  house  was  about  500  feet  from  the 
apiary,  the  roar  of  the  bees  passing  to  and  fro  was  a  sound  to  make 
glad  the  heart  of  any  beekeeper.  I  went  down  to  the  apiary  one  morn- 
ing about  6  o'clock,  and  if  I  live  to  be  100  years  old,  I  never  expect  to 
see  a  more  stirring  scene  in  any  apiary  than  I  looked  upon  in  that 
yard  of  250  colonies.  *  *  *  They  kept  up  this  pace  for  four  days; 
but,  alas,  it  rained  that  Saturday  night,  and  the  next  morning  the  log- 
wood blossoms  were  as  brown  as  though  they  had  been  burnt,  and 
the  flow  was  over.  Six  thousand  pounds  for  the  four  days  was  the  rec- 
ord." 

The  honey  does  not  sell  readily  in  American  markets  in  competition 
with   our   mild-flavored  clover  and  alfalfa   produce.     We   quote   further: 

"Prices  we  received  ran  from  a  fraction  below  2  cents  per  pound 
for  dark  to  a  small  fraction  below  3  cents  for  the  best,  which  was  one 
of  the  finest  samples  on  the  island." 

((See  also  Brazil.) 

LOMBARD  Y  STAR  THISTLE,  see  Centaurea. 

LOQUAT    (Eriobotrya   japonica). 

The  loquat  (Fig.  89)  is  a  Japanese  fruit  of  evergreen  habit  and  fragrant 
white  flowers  which  has  been  introduced  into  parts  of  California.  The 
tree  is  cultivated  for  ornament  and  for  its  edible  fruit,  which  resembles 
a  small  yellow  pear.  It  blooms  in  winter  in  California  and  is  said  to  be  an 
excellent  honey  plant. 

LOOSESTRIFE,  see  Purple  Loosestrife. 

LOUISIANA— Honey  Sources  of. 

Louisiana  has  a  large  variety  of  sources  of  nectar,  with  no  one  plant 
of  special  importance,  in  all  parts  of  the  State.  Fruit  bloom  and  forest 
trees  furnish  early  nectar  and  pollen.  In  the  northwest  part  of  the  State, 
near  Shreveport,  alfalfa  is  reported  as  a  source  of  surplus.  Holly,  locust, 
tupelo,   blackberry,    asters    and    cotton    are    among   the    sources    commonly 


PROPER"    U 

£  C.  State  C*Ucgt 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


reported.  There  are  many  minor  plants  which  yield  nectar  and  some  in 
surplus  quantity  in  limited  localities.  Much  remains  to  be  learned  con- 
cerning the  honey  flora  of  this   State. 

Willow  yields  honey  in  such  abundance  that  much  honey  is  stored  from 
it  at  times.  White  clover  also  yields,  but  is  seldom  important.  Senna, 
horsemint,  goldenrod  and  Spanish  needle  yield  some  honey  in   the  fall. 


Fig. 


The  loquat. 


LUCERNE,  see  Alfalfa. 


LUPINE   (Lupinus). 

There  are  many  species  of  lupines  which  are  common,  especially  in  the 
plains  region  and  west  to  the  Pacific  Coast.     Some  are  of  no  value  to  the 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  149 

bees,  while  others  are  good  honey  plants.  Richter  lists  Lupinus  afnnus 
as   a  source  of  nectar   in  California. 

The  blue  lupine  or  bluebonnet  (Lupinus  subcarnosus)  is  widely  dis- 
tributed over  southern  and  western  Texas,  fairly  covering  large  areas 
when  in  bloom.  The  blooming  period  comes  in  March  or  April  and  the 
author  heard  many  reports  of  this  plant,  as  an  important  source  of  early 
honey  when  visiting  Texas.  Some  claim  it  yields  only  pollen.  Scholl  lists 
it  as  a  source  of  honey. 

In   Colorado,  beemen  regard  some  lupines  as  good  honey  plants,  also. 

LYTHRUM,  see  Loosestrife. 


M 


MADRONA   (Arbutus   menziesii).     THE   ARBUTE   TREE. 

Jepson  describes  the  madrona  tree  as  evergreen  with  glossy,  leathery 
leaves,  widely  branching,  20  to  125  feet  high  ;  bark  polished,  crimson  or 
terra  cotta,  on  old  trunks  dark  brown,  and  fissured  into  small  scales. 
Coast  ranges  of  California,  oak  hills,  etc.  Grows  on  high  ridges,  moun- 
tain slopes  and  in  gravelly  valleys. 

According  to  Richter  it  yields  both  nectar  and  pollen  from  the  flowers. 

MAGNOLIA    or    BULL    BAY    TREE    (Magnolia    grandiflora). 

The  magnolia  is  native  to  moist  soils  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida 
and  west  to  Texas.  It  is  the  largest  leaved  tree  of  the  evergreens.  It  is 
a  magnificent  tree  when  uncrowded  and  is  a  favorite  shade  tree  in  the 
South.  The  thick,  leathery  leaves  persist  over  winter  until  the  new  ones 
have  appeared,  The  flowers  are  large  and  showy  and  the  blooming  period 
is  from  spring  till   midsummer. 

The  sweet  bay  (Magnolia  virginiana),  known  also  as  laurel  magnolia, 
swamp  laurel  and  beaver  tree,  grows  in  swamps  from  Massachusetts  to 
southern  Florida  and  west  to  Arkansas  and  Texas.  In  Texas  it  is  re- 
ported as  yielding  very  dark  honey  of  poor  flavor. 

Magnolia  is  not  often  mentioned  as  important,  though  an  occasional 
report  of  surplus  in  the  South  is  received.  One  beekeeper  reports  that  in 
Mississippi  the  honey  is  so  dark  and  strong  as  to  be  unpalatable. 

"We  had  three  days  of  cool,  damp,  cloudy  weather  last  year  in 
August.  During  that  time  I  visited  my  magnolia  apiary,  and  on  ap- 
proaching it  I  heard  the  heavy  roar  of  bees.  I  first  thought  that  whole- 
sale robbing  was  in  full  force,  and  I  soon  saw  that  they  were  gathering 
honey,  and  on  looking  at  the  alighting  boards  I  saw  particles  of  mag- 
nolia blooms.  This  told  the  tale.  I  went  a  few  rods  into  the  swamp, 
which  was  decorated  with  the  large,  rich  magnolia  blooms.  I  exam- 
ined a  bloom  and  there  was  the  nectar  visible,  and  all  the  bees  had  to 
do  was  to  alight,  fill  themselves  and  return.    The  weather  soon  cleared 


150  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

off  and  the  magnolia  honey  was  no  more.  Those  three  days  of  damp, 
cool  and  cloudy  weather  saved  many  old  style  gums  from  being 
turned  bottom  up,  in  the  spring,  in  this  section."— J.  J.  Wilder,  Cordele, 
Georgia.     American    Bee   Journal,  Feb.   15,   1906. 

MAGUEY,  see   Century   Plant. 
MAHOGANY   GUM,   see   Eucalyptus. 

MAINE— The   Honey  Flora  of. 

A  large  number  of  plants  produce  both  pollen  :md  nectar,  but  in 
Maine  comparatively  few  yield  a  surplus  of  honey — the  most  important 
being  white  clover,  alsike  clover,  fruit  bloom,  raspberry,  fireweed  and 
goldenrod. 

Aster  (Aster).  The  asters  are  of  some  value  in  this  State,  and  in  late 
fall  bees  may  be  seen  frequently  on  the  flowers.  Aster  paniculatus  ap- 
pears to  be  the  most  important.  In  some  localities  in  the  Middle  States 
the  ground  is  white  with  the  blossoms  of  field  asters.  Pure  honey,  white  or 
perhaps  sometimes  light  amber.  It  is  gathered  so  late  that  often  it  may 
not  be  fully  ripened. 

Apple  (Pyrus  malus).  Yields  a  small  surplus  occasionally  in  this  State. 
Honey  of  fine  quality,  light  amber  with  aromatic  flavor. 

Basswood  (Tilia  americana).  So  rare  in  this  State  as  to  be  of  little 
importance. 

Blackberry  (Rubus).  Yields  little  nectar  in  the  Northern  States  ;  but 
a  surplus  is  reported  in  Georgia  and  California. 

Boneset  (Eupatorium  perfoliatum).  Yisited  by  insects  in  large  num- 
bers, but  not  common  enough  to  yield  a  surplus. 

Buckwheat  (Fagopyrum  esculentum).  Not  extensively  grown  in  Maine, 
but  fields  of  it  are  cultivated  in  many  localities.    A  dark,  purplish  honey. 

Button-bush  (Cephalanthus  occidentalis).  Common  in  swamps,  but  not 
important. 

Canada  Thistle  (Cirsium  arvense).  Not  very  important  in  this  State. 
but  more  common   westward.     Honey  light   and  well  flavored. 

Carrot  (Daucus  Carota).    Naturalized  from  Europe,  common  in  fields. 

Clover,  white  (Trifolium  repens).  A  fine  white  honey  of  delicious  fla- 
vor. Alsike  clover  (T.  hybridum)  is  an  equally  good  honey  plant,  honey 
similar.  Both  are  abundant  in  Maine,  especially  northward.  In  dry  sea- 
sons bees  are  able  to  gather  nectar  from  red  clover,  a  bumblebee  flower. 

Cucumber  (Cucumis  sativus).  A  good  honey  plant  in  the  neighborhood 
of  pickle  factories.     Honey  with  flavor  of  the  fruit,  but  improves  with  age. 

Currant  (Ribes).  The  various  species  of  currants  and  gooseberries, 
both  wild  and  cultivated,  are  of  some  importance. 

Dandelion  (Taraxicum  officinale).  More  valuable  for  pollen  than 
nectar  in  this  State.  Honey  golden  yellow,  thick,  strong-flavored,  crys- 
tallizing in  a  few  weeks. 

Goldenrod  (Solidago).  A  most  valuable  honey  plant  in  New  England. 
In  southern  Maine  it  never  fails  to  give  a  large  surplus,  the  main  de- 
pendence of  the  beekeeper   for  winter   stores.     Honey  golden   yellow,   fine 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  151 

flavored,  candying  with  a  coarse  grain  in  a  few  months.  Solidago  gramini- 
folia  and  S.  rugosa  are  the  most  important  species  in  this  State. 

Heartsease  (Polygonum  persicaria).  This  plant,  so  valuable  in  Illinois 
and  Nebraska,  is  of  no  importance  in  Maine;  a  bee  is  rarely  seen  on  the 
flowers. 

Horse-chestnut  (Aesculus  Hippocastanum).  Not  common,  bees  gather 
both  nectar  and  pollen.     Bumblebee  flowers. 

Locust,  black  (Robinia  pseudo-acacia).  Yields  a  surplus  of  white  honey 
further  south,  but  not  abundant  in  Maine.    Often  cultivated. 

Maple  (Acer  saccharum).  The  rock  maple  blooms  in  spring  before  the 
leaves  appear  and  the  flowers  are  visited  by  bees  in  great  numbers.  The 
red  maple  also  yields  nectar. 

Milkweed  (Asclepias  syriaca).  Where  the  milkweed  is  abundant  it  is 
a  great  help  to  the  beekeeper.  In  Michigan  it  is  increasing,  and  perhaps 
also  in  Maine.    The  honey  is  excellent,  with  a  fruity  flavor. 

Mayweed  (Anthemis  cotula).  Common  by  the  roadside,  a  bitter  honey, 
apparently   not    important    in    this    State. 

Mustard  (Brassica).  Very  abundant  in  grain  fields,  where  the  flowers 
often  present  an  unbroken  sheet  of  yellow.  Probably  never  yields  a  sur- 
plus in   Maine. 

Pear  (Pyrus  communis.)  Not  of  much  importance,  but  has  been  known 
to  yield  nectar  very  freely  under  suitable  conditions. 

Plums  and  cherries  (Prunus).  All  the  species  secrete  nectar.  The 
choke-cherry,  which   is   common   in   thickets,  attracts   many  insects. 

Raspberry  (Rubus  idaeus,  variety  aculeatissimus).  One  of  the  best 
honey  plants,  where  the  forest  has  been  lumbered.  A  splendid  honey  of 
finest  flavor,  suggestive  of  the  berry. 

Sumac  (Rhus  typhina).  This  common  shrub  has  the  staminate  and 
pistillate  flowers  on  different  individual  plants;  not  common  enough  in 
Maine  to  yield  a  surplus.  Honey  bright  amber,  with  a  bitter  flavor  at  first, 
which  later  disappears. 

Sweet  clover  (Melilotus  alba).  Does  not  grow  well  on  the  clay  soil  of 
this  State;  requires  a   limestone   soil. 

Willow  (Salix).  Valuable  in  spring  for  both  pollen  and  nectar,  a  great 
help  in  building  up  the  colonies  and  bridging  over  backward  springs. 
The  pussy  willow  (Salix  discolor)  is  most  important.  It  could  be  planted 
to   advantage   in   useless   wet   land. 

Willow-herb  (Epilobium  angustifolium).  Also  called  greweed,  since  it 
springs  up  abundantly  on  land  which  has  been  burned  over.  An  excellent 
honey  plant;  honey  water-white;  flowers  red  purple. — John  H.  Lovell, 
Bulletin  of  the  Maine  Department  of  Agriculture,  Vol.  xvii,  No.  4. 

MAIZE,  see   Indian   Corn. 

MALLOW    (Malva). 

Several  lists  of  honey  plants  contain  some  mention  of  the  mallows. 
The  bees  visit  the  flowers  for  both  nectar  and  pollen,  but  the  author  can 
find  no  record  to  indicate  that  they  are  anywhere  important. 


152 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


MANCHINEEL   (Hippomane    mancinella). 

The  manchineel  is  an  evergreen  tree  common  to  the  beaches  and 
marshes  of  southern  Florida  and  the  Keys;  also  found  in  the  Bahamas 
and  Tropical  America.  It  is  very  poisonous,  and  Britton  credits  it  with 
being  the  most  poisonous  of  our  American  trees.  He  states  that  the  milky 
juice  was  used  by  the  Caribs  to  poison   their  arrows. 

It  yields  nectar  abundantly  some  seasons  and  is  the  source  of  surplus 
honey.  According  to  E.  G.  Baldwin,  it  blooms  with  pigeon  cherry  and 
with  dogwood,  and  the  late  O.  O.  Poppleton  was  the  only  man  to  at- 
tempt to  harvest  a  crop  from  the  tree,  growing  as  they  do  on  the  Keys, 
where  not  easily  accessible.  He  credits  Poppleton  with  a  yield  of  28,000 
pounds  from  the  three  together  in   1910.— Gleanings,  April  1,  1911. 

MANGROVE,  see  Black  Mangrove. 


Fig.   90.     Manzanita. 


MANITOBA— Honey    Sources    of. 

In  eastern  Manitoba  the  blueberry  yields  some  surplus.  The  main 
sources  of  nectar  for  the  Province  are  white  clover,  alsike,  fireweed,  snow- 
berry,  perennial  sow  thistle,  Canada  thistle,  wolfberry,  mustard,  golden- 
rod,  aster  and  numerous  prairie  and  weed  plants.  To  these  are  added 
willows  and  maples  as  sources  of  early  nectar. — F.  W.  L.  Sladen. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  153 

MANZANITA  or  BEARBERRY  (Arctostaphylos). 

Figure  90  shows  the  blossoms  and  leaves  of  the  manzanita,  which  is 
seldom  heard  of  as  a  honey  plant  east  of  California.  The  following  infor- 
mation is  copied  from  Richter's  "Honey  Plants  of  California": 

"Arctostaphylos,  manzanita,  bearberry.  Throughout  coast  ranges, 
Sierra  Nevada  foothills  and  San  Bernardino  Mountains  (2,000  to  9,000 
feet),  November   to   February. 

"The  honey  is  amber  and  of  excellent  flavor,  much  like  manzanita 
itself  (Colusa  County);  pollen.  San  Diego  County  reports  a  white 
honey  from  the  manzanita.  One  of  the  most  important  honey  plants 
to  induce  bees  to  early  breeding.  In  some  parts  of  Monterey,  Colusa 
and  Eldorado  Counties,  a  20  to  40  pound  surplus  is  obtained,  and  on 
very  warm  days  (Monterey  County)  nectar  can  be  shaken  from  the 
bloom.  A  beekeeper  from  Applegate  reports  it  to  be  his  best  honey 
yielder." 

The  Arctostaphylos  uva  ursi,  bearberry  or  bear  grape,  according  to 
Gray,  occurs  on  the  rocks  and  bare  hills  from  New  Jersey  and  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Missouri  and  far  north  and  westward.  It  is  also  said  to  be  com- 
mon in  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  recorded  in  the  local  lists  of  plants  of 
Connecticut  and  Ontario,  although,  probably  because  nowhere  abundant, 
it  is  not  known  as  a  source  of  honey.  Although  Richter's  list  does  not 
give  the  species  from  which  their  honey  is  secured,  it  is  probably  A. 
manzanita  or  A.  tomentosa,  or  other  species  peculiar  to  the  West  Coast. 

The  leaves  of  the  eastern  species  are  much  used  in  medicine.  It  is 
said  to  be  an  astringent   tonic,  used  in  diseases  of  the  liver. 

MAPLE    (Acer). 

Almost  all  of  the  early  pollen  and  nectar  comes  from  trees,  and  most 
of  the  trees  bloom  early.  The  maples  are  mostly  large  trees  confined  to 
North  America  and  temperate  regions  of  the  old  world.  Two  species  are 
commonly  planted  for  shade  and  ornament — the  sugar  maple  or  hard 
maple  (Acer  saccharinum)  and  the  red  maple  or  soft  maple  (Acer  rubrum). 
The  photographs  show  the  blossoms  of  the  soft  maple.     (Fig.  91.) 

Maple  lumber  is  commonly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  floor- 
ing and  finishings.  The  blossoms  come  very  early,  when  especially  valuable 
in  building  up  colonies  for  the  main  honey  flow.  If  the  bees  were  as 
numerous  as  later,  the  nectar  stored  from  maple  blossoms  would  make  a 
creditable  yield.  Mr.  C.  L.  Pinney,  of  Iowa,  reports  that  one  year  his 
scale  hive  showed  a  gain  of  from  one  to  two  pounds  daily  from  soft  maple, 
when  the  ground  was  still  covered  with  snow. 

If  it  were  possible  to  have  colonies  come  through  the  winter  with  as 
many  bees  as  they  have  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  beekeeping  would 
be  a  bonanza.  Instead  of  having  one  or  two  flows,  there  would  be  first  a 
flow  from  maple  and  willow,  followed  by  one  from  dandelion  and  fruit 
bloom,  ahead  of  the  big  clover  flow.  However,  the  beekeeper  whose  apiary 
is  situated  near  plenty  of  such  trees  as  willow,  maple,  elm  and  box-elder 
is  fortunate,  indeed,  for  the  bees  get  a  splendid  stimulation  very  early, 
and  should  be  in  prime  condition  for  business  when  clover  comes  on. 

The   big-leaf   maple    of    the    Pacific    Coast    (Acer    macrophyllum),    also 


154 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


known  as  Oregon  maple,  California  maple,  water  maple  or  white  maple, 
is  reported  as  of  special  importance  in  Oregon  and  British  Columbia,  its 
yield  is  usually  cut  short  by  rains.  It  is  found  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and 
coast  ranges  of  mountains  in  California,  north  to  southern  Alaska.  (See 
also   Box-elder). 


At  left  staminate 


isoms  and   at   righ 
Both  yield   nectar 


stillate   blossoms   of   red   map' 


MARIGOLD   (Gaillardia  pulchella). 

There  are  several  species  of  Gaillardia  common  to  a  wide  scope  of 
country.  This  particular  species  ranges  from  Louisiana  west  to  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona.  It  is  the  source  of  large  quantities  of  yellow  honey 
in  Texas,  where  it  is  highly  regarded  as  a  honey  plant.  It  is  reported  as 
yielding  surplus  occasionally  as  far  south  as  Brownsville,  though  not  fre- 
quently. 

Scholl  lists  it  as  "a  main  source  of  surplus;  honey  dark  amber  and  of 
good  quality.     May  and  June."     (See  also  Spanish   needle.) 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  155 

MARJORAM    (Origanum    vulgare). 

The  marjoram  is  an  European  plant,  cultivated  in  gardens,  which  has 
become  naturalized  along  roadsides  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  States.  Ac- 
cording to  Lovell,  it  is  a  favorite  of  honeybees;  not  sufficiently  common  to 
be  of  much  value. 

MARRUBIUM,  see  Hoarhound. 

MARYLAND— Honey  Sources  of. 

Willows,  maples,  fruit  blossoms  and  dandelion  furnish  nectar  and 
pollen  for  spring  brood  rearing.  Tulip-poplar  is  probably  the  most  import- 
ant source  of  surplus  where  the  bees  are  prepared  to  gather  it.  Coming  so 
early,  few  beekeepers  have  their  colonies  ready  for  this  flow.  Clover, 
locust,  sumac,  holly,  laurel,  clethra,  heartsease,  Spanish  needle,  asters  and 
goldenrod  are  valuable.  Tupelo  and  black-gum  are  also  to  be  found  in  the 
State.  There  is  a  long  list  of  minor  sources  similar  to  those  listed  for  New 
Jersey. 

MASSACHUSETTS— Honey  Flora  of. 

White   clover,  found   in   nearly  all  quarters  of  the   State. 

Alsike  clover.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  yields  not  only  a  good 
quality  of  nectar  but  large  quantities  of  it. 

Red  clover.     The   second  flowering  is   somewhat   accessible   to  bees. 

Sweet  clover.     Two  species,  neither  abundant  in   Massachusetts. 

Goldenrod  and  asters.     Rank  close  to  clovers  in  nectar  production. 

Fruit  bloom.  Apple,  pear,  cherry,  plum,  peach,  etc.,  source  of  early 
stores,  upon  which  the  colonies  build  up  for  the  clover  harvest.  The  body 
is  heavy,  the  color  clear  and  light  and  the  flow  comes  with  a  rush,  which 
insures  handsome  sections;  but  best  of  all  is  the  exquisite  aroma  of  the  ap- 
ple  blossom,   which   places   fruit   bloom  honey   in   a   class   by   itself. 

Linden  or  basswood.  Doubtless  the  most  valuable  tree  honey  plant 
in   Massachusetts. 

Buckwheat.     Reported   from   all   counties   in    Massachusetts. 

Wild  raspberry  and  blackberry.  The  nectar  flow  is  of  long  duration, 
beginning  after  fruit  bloom  has  ceased. 

Several  species  of  sumac  are  important  honey  sources  which  are 
greatly  underestimated. 

Locust.    A  valuable  forage  for  bees.     Reported  as  sporadic  in  yield. 

Maple.  Probably  of  less  importance  as  a  honey  plant  than  the  mints, 
strawberry   and   milkweed. 

Clethra.  Known  also  as  black  alder  and  sweet  pepper  bush.  A  valu- 
able honey  secreting  plant,  largely  confined  to  a  belt  paralleling  the  east- 
ern  coast. 

Milkweed.  Where  milkweed  occurs  in  large  quantities  it  is  a  valuable 
honey  plant.     Reported  as  important  from  Berkshire  County. 

Wild  cherry,  knotweed,  dandelion,  strawberry,  chestnut,  mints,  gill- 
over-the-ground  and  mustard  also  reported  occasionally  as  valuable. 

Willow  and  skunk  cabbage  valuable  for  early  pollen  as  well  as  some 
nectar.— Burton  N.  Gates.    Bulletin  129,  Mass.    Ag.  Ex.  Sta. 


156  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS     . 

MAT   GRASS,  see   Carpet   Grass. 

MATRIMONY  VINE   (Lycium  vulgare). 

Matrimony  vine  is  a  low,  spiny  shrub,  with  very  long,  lithe  and  almost 
climbing  branches.  It  came  originally  from  the  Mediterranean  region  and 
was  very  generally  planted  for  ornament  about  American  homes  a  genera- 
tion ago.  It  is  very  persistent,  and  has  run  wild  about  many  deserted 
home  sites.  The  small  flowers  clustered  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  are  very 
attractive  to  the  bees,  and,  where  sufficiently  common,  the  plant  is  prob- 
ably of  considerable  importance. 

MAYWEED  (Anthemis  Cotula). 

The  mayweed  or  dog  fennel  is  an  old-world  weed  extensively  natural- 
ized from  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  west  to  Texas.  It  is  common 
along  roadsides,  in  barn  lots  and  waste  places  generally.  Lovell  credits  it 
with  yielding  a  honey  that  is  light  yellow  in  color  and  very  bitter.  It  is 
seldom  mentioned  as  a  source  of  nectar. 

Richter  states  that  because  of  its  blooming  between  spring  and  sum- 
mer it  is  of  considerable  value  to  many  Sacramento  Valley  beekeepers. 

MEDICAGO,  see  Alfalfa. 
MELIA,  see  China  Tree. 
MELILOTUS,  see  Sweet  Clover. 
MELISSA,  see  Bee   Balm. 

MELONS   (Cucumis  melo). 

Melons  are  valuable  sources  of  honey.  In  locations  where  they  are 
grown  in  large  acreage,  as  in  the  Rocky  Ford  district  of  Colorado,  consid- 
erable quantities  of  honey  are  stored  from  them.  There  are  numerous 
varieties  of  muskmelons,  canteloupes,  etc.,  but  apparently  there  is  not 
much  difference   in   the  value  of  the  various   sorts   to  the  beekeeper. 

As  with  cucumbers  and  pumpkins,  the  male  and  female  blossoms  are 
on  different  parts  of  the  stem.  Bees  and  insects  carry  the  pollen  from  one 
to  another,  if  in  close  proximity,  and  often  cause  hybridization. 

MENTZELIA. 

Mentzeli  speciosa  is  a  conspicuous  plant  along  roadsides  and  waste 
places  in  Colorado.  Its  large  white  blossoms  are  closed  during  the  heat  of 
the  day,  but  beekeepers  report  that  the  bees  work  upon  it  freely  in  early 
morning  and  late  evening.     It  is  probably  not  important. 

In  Oregon  the  stickleaf  (Mentzelia  albicaulis)  grows  freely  on  dry, 
stony  land.  It  has  a  spreading  habit  and  its  pale  orange  colored  flowers 
are  very  attractive  to  the  bees. 

MESQUITE   (Prosopis   glandulosa). 

The  mesquite,  or  mezquit,  is  the  most  important  plant  of  the  arid  re- 
gions from  central  Texas  to  New  Mexico  and  eastern  California.  At  a 
distance  it  has  much  the  appearance  of  an  aged  peach  tree.    A  northern 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


157 


man  riding  through  the  mesquite  region  on  the  train,  for  the  first  time, 
remarked  'that  he  had  never  seen  such  extensive  peach  orchards  in  his 
life.  The  tree  is  much  branched  and  spreading  in  habit  and  is  the  source 
of  fuel  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  region.  Live  stock  also  are  fond  of  the 
leaves  and  pods  and  the  Indians  of  the  Southwest  eat  the  seeds,  first 
grinding  them  into  meal  and  baking  them. 

The  same  or  a  closely  related  species  is  common  in  Hawaii,  where  it 
is  known  as  algaroba.  There  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of 
honey.  (See  Hawaii).  This  species  is  sometimes  called  honey-pod  or 
honey-locust,  although  the  true  honey-locust  is  a  very  different  tree. 


Mesquite   is   one   of  the   most   important   sources   of   honey   in   the   Southwest, 


In  the  desert  regions  of  California  it  is  an  important  source  of  large 
quantities  of  honey,  as  it  is  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  Texas.  In  south- 
west Texas  mesquite  is  the  principal  source.  The  honey  is  light  amber 
and  of  good  quality.  Beekeepers  report  that  it  is  lighter  in  color  some 
years  than  others,  even  though  nothing  is  blooming  at  the  same  season,  so 


158  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

the  difference  cannot  be  laid  to  a  mixture  of  honey  from  different  sources. 
The  quality  of  mesquite  honey  is  good.  It  is  reported  to  yield  more  regu- 
larly on  sandy  land  than  on  heavy  soil. 

There  are  two  blooming  periods,  the  first  in  spring,  usually  in  April, 
and  the  second  in  July.  If  'there  has  been  plenty  of  moisture  previously 
the  mesquite  blooms  profusely,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  roots  very  deeply 
and  can   reach   any   moisture   that   is   available   in   the   soil. 

MEXICAN   CLOVER   (Richardia  scabra). 

The  name  clover  is  a  misnomer,  for  this  plant  does  not  belong  to  the 
clovers  but  to  an  entirely  different  group.  It  is  a  luxuriant  annual  weed 
growing  to  a  height  of  two  feet  or  more.  The  bees  are  reported  as  work- 
ing upon   it  quite   late  in  'the   season. 

The  plant  was   introduced  from  the   tropics  and  has   become   natural- 
ized in   Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama   and   Mississippi. 

MICHIGAN— Honey  Sources  of. 

While  Michigan  is  within  the  clover  belt,  there  are  a  greater  variety 
of  sources  of  surplus  honey  than  in  most  nearby  States.  In  spring,  wil- 
lows, maples,  fruit  bloom  and  dandelion  have  the  usual  importance.  Both 
white  and  alsike  clover  yield  surplus  in  Michigan.  To  'these  may  be  added 
wild  raspberry,  fireweed  or  willow  herb  and  milkweeds,  all  of  which  are 
important  sources  of  surplus  honey  in  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  Bass- 
wood  was  formerly  important  and  still  produces  surplus  in  some  sections, 
though  many  of  the  basswood  forests  have  been  cut.  Buckwheat  is  also  a 
source  of  surplus  in  some  parts  of  Michigan,  though  according  to  E.  D. 
Townsend  surplus  from  buckwheat  is  only  to  be  expected  on  "a  rather 
poor  quality  of  sandy  soil."  Townsend  says,  further,  that  alsike  is  worth 
all  other  sources  put  together  in  the  southern  two-thirds  of  the  lower 
peninsula,  and  that  aster  yields  surplus  in  Sanilac  County. — Gleanings, 
page  1184,  1908. 

MIGNONETTE  (Reseda  odorata).     COMMON   MIGNONETTE. 

The  mignonette  of  our  gardens  is  a  native  of  Egypt  which  came  to 
America  by  way  of  Europe.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  honey  plant, 
especially  in  older  literature.  Some  extravagant  claims  have  been  made 
for  it,  but  perhaps  it  has  never  been  given  a  fair  test  on  a  sufficiently 
large  scale  to  demonstrate  fully  its  value.  The  following  extract  from  an 
article  which  appeared  in  the  American  Bee  Journal,  Page  47,  1878,  is  of 
interest  in  this  connection  : 

"After  being  started  under  diligent  cultivation  it  was  astonishing 
to  see  the  rapid  progress  which  they  made.  The  plants  soon  covered 
the  ground,  where  soil  was  good,  and  were  out  in  blossom  in  a  short 
time,  and  from  that  time  forward  the  bees  were  working  on  them  by 
the  thousand  from  morning  till  late  afternoon.  I  have  seen  them 
thick  on  it  by  8  o'clock.     It  yields  pollen  as  well  as  honey.     *     *     * 

"I  have  found  that  on  account  of  the  spikes  of  the  blossom  being 
so  much  longer,  the  bees  must  work  on  the  larger  varieties.     I  have 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS  159 

some  sorts  which  stand  two  feet  high,  the  spikes  being  from  eight  to 
ten  inches  long.     *     *     * 

"A  correspondent  from  California  stated  that  he  thought  an  acre 
of  mignonette  would  be  adequate  for  a  hundred  colonies.     *     *     * 

"When  you  give  them  this  in  addition  to  what  they  would  other- 
wise have,  it  will  certainly  secure  an  immense  addition  to  the  honey 
produced.  There  is  no  plant  within  the  range  of  our  knowledge  as 
valuable  for  bee  forage  as  mignonette.  It  will  bloom  year  after  year 
if  not  disturbed  by  frost  and  gives  a  longer  period  of  bloom  than  any 
other  plant.  It  gives  more  blossoms  in  a  given  space  and  more  forage 
than  ain-  plant  we  have  ever  seen.  Honey  from  this  plant  has  the  most 
delicious  fragrance  of  any  we  have  ever  tasted." — William  Thompson. 
It  was  later  tested  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  but  Professor 
Cook  failed  to  bear  out  the  above  claims.    He  reported  as  follows  : 

"I  expected  great  things  of  this  plant,  as  the  bee  papers  were  very 
high  in  their  praise  of  its  qualities.  June  23  it  began  to  blossom,  and 
it  was  not  till  the  27th  that  the  bees  began  their  work  upon  it.  They 
did  not  seem  to  take  to  it  very  readily,  for  on  every  occasion  that  I 
made  observations,  I  found  very  few  bees  present.  With  us  it  proved  a 
failure.  Others  have  corroborated  this  statement.  *  *  *  It  is  rather 
a  delicate  plant  for  this  climate."— Page  83,  A.  B.  J.,  1878. 
It    is   listed   by   Richter   in    Bulletin  217,   "Honey   Plants    of   California," 

with    the    statement    that    it    is    "very    much    visited    by    bees    whenever    in 

bloom." 

MILK  VETCH   (Astragalus). 

The  milk  vetch  is  a  close  relative  of  the  loco  (see  Loco),  and  like 
the  loco  is  visited  by  the  bees.  Some  species  are  of  some  value  for  honey, 
especially  in  the  plains  region  west  of  the   Missouri  River. 

MILKWEED    (Asclepias). 

The  milkweeds  are  a  large  family  of  plants  common  to  the  temperate 
and  tropical  regions  of  many  parts  of  the  world.  North  America  alone  has 
55  recognized  species.  These  plants  are  also  known  as  butterfly  weeds 
and  milkweeds.  The  blossoms  are  borne  in  large  ball-shaped  clusters  as 
shown  in  Figure  92.  The  seeds  are  attached  to  silken  parachutes,  on 
which  they  are  carried  by  the  wind.  It  is  these  silky  attachments  that 
give  rise  to  the  name  "silkweed."  Remarkable  yields  of  honey  are  some- 
times secured  from  milkweeds.  An  average  yield  of  100  pounds  per  colony 
from  this   source  is  occasionally  reported  through   the   bee   magazines. 

Much  has  been  written  about  the  entangling  of  bees  in  the  pollen 
masses  of  milkweed.  It  frequently  happens  that  bees  thus  entangled  are 
unable  to  free  themselves  and  die  as  a  result.  Some  species  of  milkweed 
is  included  in  nearly  every  list  of  honey  plants  which  the  author  has  con- 
sulted. Apparently  it  may  be  regarded  as  of  some  value  almost  every- 
where.   The  honey  is  said  to  be  light  in  color  and  of  good  quality. 

It  is  of  special  importance  in  northern  Michigan,  where  it  grows  in 
great  abundance,  as  shown  by  Figure  93.  In  some  locations  beekeepers 
report  an  average  per  colony  production  of  50  pounds,  year  after  year, 
from  milkweed. 


160 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Fig.   92.      Blossoms   of  the   milkweed. 
MILKWEED  VINE,  see  Bluevine. 

MINNESOTA— Honey  Sources  of. 

In  early  spring  the  willows  and  maples,  followed  by  dandelions  are  im- 
portant for  spring  brood  rearing.  Fruit  bloom  is  also  valuable  in  spring. 
White  clover  and  alsike  are  the  most  important  sources  of  surplus.  Prob- 
ably there  is  no  place  in  the  world  where  these  clovers  yield  nectar  more 
abundantly  than  in  Minnesota.  Sweet  clover  is  also  important  in  some 
sections  of  the  State.  Willow  herb  or  fireweed,  basswood,  goldenrod  and 
asters  may  be  mentioned. 


MINT  (Mentha). 

Richter  lists  the  spearmint,  or  peppermint,  (Mentha  spicata),  as  yield- 
ing a  great  abundance  of  amber  colored  honey  in  Sacramento  County, 
California  and  southward.  Spearmint  was  introduced  from  Europe  and 
has  escaped  from  cultivation  and  become  naturalized  in  many  places,  both 
east  and  west. 

He  also  lists  the  tule  mint  (Mentha  canadensis)  as  yielding  honey  from 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


161 


July  to  October.  The  mints  belong  to  an  important  group  of  honey  plants 
and  where  sufficiently  common  are  valuable.  They  should  not  be  confused 
with  hedge  nettle,  which  is  locally  called  mint  in  many  places.  (See  Hedge 
Nettle). 


Fig. 


In  Northern   Michigan   milkweeds  grow   abundantly   over   large  areas   and   are   the 
source   of  much  surplus   honey. 


MISSISSIPPI— Honey   Sources   of. 

Along  the  eastern  border  of  the  State  there  is  a  large  area  where  sweet 
clover  is  widely  disseminated.  In  this  section  large  yields  of  surplus  honey 
from  this  source  are  reported.  An  average  yield  of  140  pounds  per  colony 
of  surplus  from  700  colonies  in  one  yard  near  Prairie  Point  has  been  re- 
ported to  the  author  by  a  prominent  Mississippi  apiarist. 

Willow,  maple,  fruit  bloom  and  elm  are  reported  as  important  for 
early  pollen  and  nectar.  White  clover  yields  some  honey  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  State.  Persimmon  is  given  as  an  important  source  of  dark 
honey.  Bitterweed  yields  freely,  but  the  quality  is  so  poor  as  to  be  of 
little  value.  Tupelo  and  cotton  are  valuable  in  some  sections  of  the  State. 
There  is  some  fall  honey  from  asters  and  goldenrod. 

The  coast  region  offers  a  vast  area  of  gallberry  and  there  is  much  titi 
along  the  streams.  There  are  some  very  good  unoccupied  locations  in 
Mississippi  which   offer  great  possibilities   for  honey  production. 


MISSOURI  CURRANT,  see  Buffalo  Currant. 


162  AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 

MISSOURI— Honey  Sources  of. 

White  clover  is  the  one  principal  source  of  honey  in  Missouri.  Sweet 
clover  yields  surplus  in  some  localities.  In  the  low  lands  along  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  heartsease,  Spanish  needle  and  boneset  are  also  important.  In 
many  places  south  of  the  Missouri  River,  bitterweed  yields  some  nectar, 
which  is  often  mixed  with  the  better  honey  and  spoils  the  quality.  Blue- 
vine  (Gonolobus  laevis)  yields  surplus  in  a  few  localities.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Brunswick  as  much  as  100  pounds  of  surplus  per  colony  has  been  re- 
ported. 

Only  a  small  portion  of  Missouri  is  well  suited  to  commercial  beekeep- 
ing, owing  to  uncertainty  of  the  honey  flows.  With  the  extension  of  the 
growth  of  sweet  clover  as  a  farm  crop  conditions  are  improving. 

MISTLETOE   (Phoradendron  flavescens). 

The  mistletoe  is  too  well  known  to  need  description.  It  occurs  as  a 
parasite  on  trees  from  southern  Xew  Jersey  and  Missouri  south  to  Florida 
and  Texas.  It  is  a  yellowish-green  shrub,  much  branched,  which  grows  on 
the  branches  of  the  trees  to  which  it  attaches  itself.  It  flowers  early,  usu- 
ally in  February  and  March,  and  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  honey  plant 
in  the  Southern  States.  Scholl  lists  it  as  the  first  source  of  nectar  and 
pollen  in  Texas,  blooming  there  in  January  and  February.  Many  Texas 
beekeepers   regard   it   as   valuable   for   spring   stimulation. 

MONARDA,    see    Horsemint. 

MONTANA— Honey  Sources  of. 

The  principal  sources  of  nectar  in  Montana  are  alfalfa  and  white  sweet 
clover  in  Yellowstone,  Sun  River,  Missouri,  Gallatin  and  Flat-Head  Val- 
leys; yellow  sweet  clover  in  Bitterroot  Valley,  White  clover  in  Bitterroot 
and  Gallatin  Valleys,  and  fireweed  in  northwestern  timbered  region. 
Minor  plants  are  willow,  dandelion,  Grindelia  (gum-weed),  etc. — H.  A. 
Scullen. 

MONUMENT  PLANT  (Frasera). 

The  monument  plant  is  variously  known  as  columbo,  deer's  ears  (a 
translation  of  the  Xavaho  name),  and  Frasera.  It  grows  in  high  altitudes 
from  7,000  to  10,000  feet,  from  South  Dakota  westward  to  Montana  and 
Oregon   and  south  to  Xew   Mexico  and   California. 

It  has  large,  creamy  blossoms,  about  two  inches  in  diameter,  on  tall 
flower  stalks  growing  to  a  height  of  three  feet.  (Fig.  94.)  It  is  common 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  is  much  sought  by  the  bees.  According  to 
Wesley  Foster  it  is  an  important  source  of  honey  in  May.  It  is  a  striking 
plant  which  once  seen   is  not  likely  to  be   forgotten. 

MORNING-GLORY    (Convolvulus). 

The  morning-glory  is  a  twining  perennial  vine  of  wide  distribution 
throughout  the  United  States.  It  has  a  large  bell-shaped  corolla  and  is 
often   grown    for   ornament,     Originally   it   was    introduced    from    Europe 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


163 


Fig.   94.      The 


nuiii'.ent  plant    (J  fa)    is   a   striking   plant   which,   once  seen,  is 

not  likely  to  be  forgotten 


164 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


as  an  ornamental  and  has  escaped  and  become  naturalized  in  waste  places, 
eld  fields  and  along  fences  everywhere.  It  is  probably  not  important  to  the 
beekeeper  anywhere,  but  Richter  lists  it  as  a  honey  plant  at  Sacramento, 
California,  and  Scholl  lists  it  as  yielding  some  honey  and  pollen  in  Texas. 
At  Victoria,  Texas,  according  to  M.  B.  Talley,  morning  glory  yields 
surplus  hone}-  of  fine  quality  in  September.     There  it  is  called  tievine. 

MOTHERWORT  (Leonurus  Cardiaca). 

The  common  motherwort  is  a  weed  introduced  from  Europe  and 
Northern  Asia.  It  is  now  quite  generally  naturalized  from  Canada  to 
Florida  and  west  to  Louisiana.  For  some  reason,  it  is  seldom  included  in 
lists  of  honey  plants,  although  it  is  said  to  be  an  excellent  source  of  nec- 
tar. Reports  of  bees  working  on  this  plant  very  freely,  in  1914,  when 
most  other  plants  failed  to  yield  anything,  were  frequent. 

The  motherwort  grows  in  clumps  in  waste  places  in  old  barn  lots, 
along  railroads,  in  factory  grounds,  etc.  It  grows  from  two  to  six  feet 
high,  with  small  flower  clusters  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  It  is  a  relative 
of   the  catnip,   and   apparently   equally   attractive   to   the   bees.     This   plant 


k 

i  Wis -M^jj'Mts^M 

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tm 

J* 

XjjN£$fr 

1 

■■■■BBHHHHR 

Fig.  95.  Clump  of  motherwort  in  barnyard. 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


165 


was  formerly  used  to  some   extent  in  medicine,  especially  for  diseases   of 
women.     It  is  also  known  as  lion's  tail. 

Figure  96  shows  the  blossoms  and  leaves,  and  Figure  95  a  clump  of 
the  plants. 

MOUNTAIN  LAUREL,  see  Laurel. 

MOUNTAIN  LILAC  (Ceanothus). 

There  are  several  species  of  mountain  lilac  common  to  California  and 
the  Western  States.  They  are  closely  related  to  the  buckthorns.  (See 
Buckthorn).  New  Jersey  tea  belongs  to  this  group.  (See  New  Jersey 
tea). 

Jepson  lists  fourteen  species  of  Ceanothus  common  to  California. 
They  are  shrubs  or  small  trees  with  small  but  showy  flowers,  borne  in 
umbels  or  panicles.     The  California  species  are  mostly  evergreen. 

They  are  known  by  various  names,  as  deer-brush,  California  lilac, 
mountain  lilac,  etc.    One  species  is  called  buckbrush. 

Some  species  are  common  to  the  Mountain  States  from  Wyoming  and 
Colorado  to  Arizona  and  west  to  Texas.  Both  honey  and  pollen  are  se- 
cured from  this  source,  though  there  are  probably  not  many  places  where 
surplus   yields   may  be   expected. 

MOUNTAIN  MINT,  see  Basil. 
MOUNTAIN  QUEEN,  see  Yucca. 


Fig.  96.     Motherwort  in  bloom. 


166 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


MUSTARD   (Brassica  campestris). 

Figure  97  shows  the  common  yellow  mustard  (Brassica  campestris), 
which  is  common  all  over  North  America  and  in  Europe.  The  black  mus- 
tard (B.  nigra)  also  has  a  very  wide  distribution  in  Europe  and  America. 
There  are  about  50  species,  including  the  closely  related  cultivated  varie- 


ties of  cabbage,  turnips,  rutabagas  and  mustard.  All  produce  some  nec- 
tar, and  in  some  localities  they  are  an  important  source  of  honey.  In 
parts  of  California,  notably  the  Lompoc  Valley,  mustard  is  grown  com- 
mercially for  seed;  much  honey  is  stored  from  this  source.  The  honey 
is  said  to  be  light  in  color  and  mild  in  flavor.  Apparently  there  is  much 
variation    in   the   amount   of   nectar,   according   to   climatic   conditions.     In 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  167 

any  locality  where  it  is  sufficiently  abundant,  mustard  can  be  expected  to 

add  something  to  the  product  of  the  apiary. 

The  late  J.  S.  Harbison  wrote,  in  his  "Beekeepers'  Directory,": 

"Mustard  affords  a  larger  amount  of  valuable  pasturage  to  the  acre 
than  almost  any  other  plant.  It  blooms  throughout  the  month  of  May, 
and  part  of  June.  During  this  time,  bees  increase  in  numbers,  and 
store  from  it  large  quantities  of  honey  of  a  clear  yellowish  color,  but 
partaking  slightly  of  the  taste  of  the  plant." 


N 


NAPA  THISTLE,  see  Star  Thistle;    aiso  Centaurea. 

NEBRASKA,  Honey  Sources  of. 

Most  of  Nebraska's  surplus  honey  is  secured  from  clover,  though 
alfalfa  is  important  in  the  western  part  of  the  State,  especially  under  irri- 
gation. White  clover,  alsike  and  sweet  clover  are  all  important  honey 
plants  in  Nebraska.  Cottonwood  furnishes  an  important  source  of  pollen 
in  spring.  Willows  and  maples  furnish  both  nectar  and  pollen,  while  fruit 
bloom  and  dandelions  are  usually  sufficient  to  enable  the  bees  t  >  build 
up  for  the  clover  flow.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  minor  sources  which 
are  not  sufficiently  abundant  to  yield  much  surplus.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned,  milkweeds,  catalpa,  Rocky  Mountain  bee  plant,  buffalo  bur, 
vervain,  Spanish   needles,  etc. 

Heartsease  yields  abundant  surplus  some  years  and  basswood  was 
formerly    important    in    some   places    in    eastern    Nebraska. 

NECTAR  AND  NECTAR  SECRETION. 

The  great  Swedish  botanist,  Linnaeus,  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago, 
basing  his  classification  of  plants  on  their  flowers,  found  it  necessary  to 
name  and  account  for  all  of  the  parts  of  a  flower.  In  many  cases  he  found 
structures  that  were  neither  sepals,  petals,  stamens  nor  pistils,  and  as 
these  contained,  or  were  wet  with,  a  sweet  fluid,  he  gave  this  the  fanciful 
name  "nectar"— the  drink  of  the  gods,  and  called  the  parts  of  the  flower 
that  produced  or  contained  it,  "nectaries." 

As  these  nectaries  were  different  from  stamens  and  pistils,  which  Lin- 
naeus recognized  as  the  sexual  organs  of  flowers,  though  they  are  some- 
times connected  with  them,  and  as  they  were  different  from  ordinary 
sepals  and  petals,  though  sometimes  connected  with  them,  they  presented 
something  of  a  question  to  the  men  of  that  day,  who  were  curious  to 
know  what  the  parts  of  a  plant  really  are  and  what  they  do.  For  this 
reason  the  study  of  nectaries  became  something  of  a  popular  diversion 
for  a  generation  or  two;  and  a  general  idea  that  they  are  organs  for  se- 
creting  sugar   became    established;    not    necessarily    an    idea    of    secretion, 


168 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


though,  for  just  as  animals  excrete  various  organic  substances  that  are 
by-products,  or  waste,  from  some  of  their  functions,  so  it  was  thought  by 
some  students  that  the  sugar  or  nectar  might  really  be  an  excreted  waste 
or  surplus  rather  than  a  substance  secreted  because  it  is  to  become  useful 
to  the  plant. 


'.i"-.''i^T^  .".'.';,;■  Hi  m 


Fig.  9S.     Sprengel's  title  page. 


Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  German  rector,  Sprengel, 
who  seems  to  have  found  in  nature  a  good  deal  of  inspiration  that  he 
failed  to  "put  over,"  noticed  that  the  petals  of  the  common  German  wild 
geranium  were  fringed  with  hairs  at  their  bases.  That  was  in  the  day 
before  men  believed  in  evolution,  but  when  they  did  believe  in  a  purposeful 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  169 

creation.  Sprengel  was  convinced  that  an  all-wise  Creator  would  not 
have  made  a  single  hair  in  vain,  and  he  set  about  discovering  what  these 
hairs  were  for,  much  as  a  sensible  person,  seeing  the  governor  on  an  en- 
gine today  would  try  to  find  out  what  it  is  for.  Below  the  break  between 
•the  petals,  he  found  a  nectar  gland,  producing  its  sugary  fluid;  and  he  saw 
the  hairs  would  prevent  the  nectar  from  being  diluted  or  washed  away  by 
rain  or  dew.  This  brought  him  back  to  the  original  question — what  nec- 
taries and  nectar  are  for.  He  got  his  answer  to  this  by  watching  the 
plant  and  seeing  that  bees  visited  the  flowers  and  removed  the  nectar  as 
what  might  be  called  the  raw  materials  of  the  honey  industry. 

In  Sprengel's  day  the  general  impression  was  not  only  that  things 
have  been  created  just  as  we  find  them,  but  created  for  our  own  ultimate 
good.  So  Sprengel  found  an  answer  in  discovering  that  the  hair  fringe  of 
the  geranium  petals  protects  the  nectar  of  the  flowers  and  so  preserves 
it  for  bees  to  use  in  manufacturing  honey  for  our  breakfast  table. 

When  you  stop  to  think  about  it,  Sprengel  could  hardly  have  had  the 
curiosity  to  study  out  his  geranium  question  to  an  answer  without  being 
spurred  to  look  at  other  flowers  to  see  if  they  might  not  have  something 
interesting  of  the  same  sort  to  offer.  He  yielded  to  the  impulse  to  look  at 
other  flowers,  and  he  found  his  geranium  to  be  a  very  drab  specimen  com- 
pared with  some  of  the  irregular  and  painted  flowers  that  he  studied  out  in 
the  same  way.  He  must  have  felt  no  common  pride  when,  in  1793,  he  pub- 
lished the  results  of  his  studies,  with  simple  but  effective  illustrations, 
under  a  title  that  meant  revealing  to  mankind  the  newly  discovered  secret 
of  nature  in  the  structure  and  fertilization  of  flowers. 

But  Sprengel  seems  not  to  have  been  the  sort  of  man  to  whom  such 
an  answer  really  was  an  answer,  and  he  looked  further.  It  does  not  seem 
to  have  taken  him  long  to  see  that  while  gathering  their  own  store  of 
honey,  and  obviously  without  consciousness  that  they  were  doing  anything 
else,  the  bees  became  dusted  with  pollen  from  geranium  stamens  and 
rubbed  it  off  on  geranium  stigmas  while  going  their  rounds  of  the  flowers. 
This  conclusion  evidently  answered  two  questions — what  the  hairs  are  for, 
and  what  nectar  is  for. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  walk  down  Michigan  Boulevard  on  a  windy  day 
to  realize  that  we  belong  to  an  imitative  race.  The  corner  grocery  and 
the  drug  store  show  it  as  well  as  the  windows  of  milliners  and  dress- 
makers, shoe  shops  and  news  stands,  or  as  the  sights  that  issue  from  a 
barber  shop  in  a  college  town. 

Fashions  run  in  fads  and  interests  quite  as  much  as  in  dress.  Linnaeus 
was  a  great  botanist;  perhaps  none  has  been  greater.  He  not  only  re- 
duced a  chaotic  science  to  order,  but  interested  men  in  its  study  to  a  re- 
markable extent.  It  is  rather  unfairly  charged  against  him  that  because 
his  service  was  somewhat  one-sided,  those  whose  interest  he  awakened 
were  extremely  one-sided,  in  that  they  did  not  see  or  care  for  much  in 
botany  beyond  finding,  describing  and  classifying  new  plants.  This  was 
well  enough  worth  doing;  it  is  not  finished  yet,  and  will  not  be  finished 
for  many  years  to  come;  but  it  had  become   so  fascinating  and  workable 


170 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


through  the  genius  of  the  Swedish  master  that  his  followers  seized  on  it 
with  eagerness,  and  it  was  a  long  time  before  a  mind  of  original  habits 
and  impulses  broke  loose  from  the  train. 

The  man  who  possessed  this  originality  was  Darwin,  the  promulgator 
of  the  now  universally  accepted  idea  of  organic  evolution.  To  him  has 
been  ascribed  the  introduction  of  a  new  teleology  into  natural  science, 
recognizing  that  structures  and  functions  are  because  they  are  or  have 
been  of  use — not  of  use  to  man  necessarily,  though  man  may  turn  them  to 
account — but  to  their  possessor. 


Fig.   99. 


This  was  Sprengel's  conclusion  as  to  the  nectar  of  geranium  flowers, 
which  he  found  led  to  their  fertilization.  The  essential  difference  between 
his  way  of  seeing  it  and  Darwin's  is  that  he  thought  the  entire  mechan- 
ism has  been  specially  made  by  the  Creator  as  a  means  to  an  end,  while 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  171 

Darwin  saw  in  it  the  gradual  modification  of  earlier  structures  because 
the  new  were  helpful  in  the  struggle  of  life  and  their  possessors  for  this 
reason  were  likely  to  survive  and  pass  them  on   to  their  offspring. 

There  is  a  German  country  saying  that  the  honeybee  was  forbidden 
the  red  clover  because  she  didn't  keep  Sunday.  Beekeepers  know  that  her 
tongue  is  a  little  too  short  for  the  honey  tube  of  the  red  clover  flower 
and  that  she  doesn't  waste  time  in  trying  to  get  what  is  out  of  her  reach. 
They  know,  too,  that  some  races  of  honeybees  really  can  suck  the  red 
clover  nectar  because  they  have  longer  tongues,  and  if  beekeepers  ever 
want  to  do  it  they  can  probably  set  an  expert  plant  breeder  to  work  at 
breeding  a  race  of  red  clover  with  a  tube  short  enough  so  that  even  the 
German  honeybee  can  get  at  its  nectar.  Natural  evolution  hasn't  done 
this.  Where  red  clover  is  at  home  bumblebees  are  found,  and  bumblebees 
have  no  difficulty  in  reaching  its  nectar  much  as  hawk-moths  get  that  of  a 
moon  flower,  which  is  far  beyond  the  reach  of  any  kind  of  bee.  But  in 
the  South  Seas,  where  there  are  no  long-tongued  bees,  red  clover  finds 
itself  as  unable  to  set  seed  as  the  German  honeybee  is  to  get  at  its  nectar. 
Bee  and  flower  have  evolved  together,  where  both  are  at  home,  into  a 
harmony  of  structure  that  is  helpful  to  them  both. 

Nothing  was  more  suggestive  to  Darwin  in  his  search  for  evidences  of 
evolution,  or  modification  through  descent,  than  this  sort  of  harmony  of 
structure  and  habit  in  flowers  and  insects;  and  one  of  his  earliest  and  most 
effective  books  in  bringing  his  views  to  the  comprehending  notice  of  others 
was  one  dealing  with  the  mutual  relations  between  those  freaks  in  flowers, 
the  orchids,  and  their  insect  visitors. 

For  Sprengel's  teleology,  Sprengel's  explanation  of  nectar  as  a  means 
of  securing  fertilization  was  sufficient.  For  Darwin's  teleology,  it  carried 
another  question:  Why?  The  geranium  flower  has  both  stamens  and 
pistil,  standing  in  its  middle.  The  one  might  fertilize  the  other  just  as  well 
as  not,  apparently;  and  yet  this  does  not  happen,  for  the  pollen-bearing 
anthers  of  the  stamens  drop  off  before  the  stigmas  of  the  pistils  come  to 
maturity.  The  same  thing  may  be  seen  on  any  single-flowered  geranium  in 
;.  bay  window  or  a  greenhouse  or  a  summer  window  box  or  flower  bed, 
only  this  geranium  does  not  belong  to  the  genus  Geranium  of  the  botan- 
ists, but  to  the  related  African  genus  Pelargonium. 

Looking  for  a  further  reason,  Darwin  saw  a  step  further  into  the  mys- 
tery when  he  found  that  these  and  many  other  flowers  that  ought  to  get 
(.n  without  any  help  are  as  dependent  upon  insects  through  their  own  fail- 
ure to  bring  pollen  and  stigma  together  as  those  are  in  which  stamens  and 
pistils  are  borne  in  separate  flowers — often  on  separate  plants.  To  him, 
nectar  and  its  attendants— flower  fragrance,  color,  variegation,  bizarre 
shape,  long  tubes,  nectar  guards  of  hairs  or  some  other  structure — meant 
what  they  had  meant  to  Sprengel,  fertilization  through  insect  aid;  but 
they  meant  something  more,  fertilization  of  one  flower  by  pollen  from 
another  flower — crossing. 

And  still  the  questions  multiply.  Why  do  not  all  flowers  have  sta- 
mens  and  pistil   side  by  side?     Why,  when   they  have   this   structure,  do 


172  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

they  not  time  the  maturity  of  these  essential  parts  so  as  to  secure  effective 
functioning  without  all  the  nectar  machinery?  In  other  words,  why  is 
crossing  so  commonly  necessitated  and  provided  for? 

Science  of  every  kind  has  been  advanced  by  three  methods — reason- 
ing, observation,  experimentation.  Sprengel's  answer  was  reached  by  the 
first  two;  the  new  answer  sought  by  Darwin  was  to  be  obtained  through 
the  third.  For  eleven  years  he  put  the  question  direct  to  the  plants  them- 
selves, fertilizing  them  by  their  own  pollen,  crossing  them,  raising  and 
requestioning  their  offspring.  More  and  stronger  progeny  from  crossing 
was  the  answer. 

The  popularity  that  Linnaeus  had  given  to  characterizing  and  classi- 
fying living  things,  was  transferred  by  Darwin  to  studying  'their  structure 
and  doings.  Sprengel's  idea  fell  upon  barren  soil;  Darwin's  was  cultivated 
with  care  and  skill. 

Two  men — Mueller,  a  German,  and  Delpino,  an  Italian,  stand  out  most 
prominently  among  a  multitude  who  observed  and  wrote  and  pictured  the 
marvels  of  flower  and  insect  harmonies  for  a  generation.  All  did  excellent 
work  in  furnishing  details  and  corroborations;  but  Darwin  had  answered 
the  question  as  to  the  what  and  the  why  of  the  nectar  of  flowers. 

But  there  is  nectar  that  is  not  produced  in  flowers.  Look  at  the  queer 
spots  in  the  angles  between  the  veins  on  the  under  side  of  a  catalpa  leaf, 
when  it  is  young;  or  at  the  little  goblets  on  the  stalk  of  a  cherry  or  peach 
or  snowball  leaf,  or  at  the  pin-head  spots  on  a  trumpet-creeper  or  paeony 
calyx,  and  you  may  see  glands  there  that  secrete  a  sweet  fluid.  Bees  may 
not  care  for  it,  but  wasps  or  ants  do.  The  cotton  plant  has  such  sweet  nec- 
tar glands  on  the  outside  of  the  cluster  of  bracts  about  each  blossom,  and 
on  the  back  of  its  leaves. 

In  a  very  few  cases  such  "extrafloral"  nectar  serves  the  same  purpose 
as  that  within  the  flowers;  but  generally  it  does  not  lead  to  fertilization. 
Delpino  called  the  nectar  that  leads  to  fertilization  "nuptial"  nectar,  and 
the  other  "extranuptial." 

In  the  seventies  of  the  last  century  an  English  mining  engineer,  Belt, 
well  known  in  the  ore  regions  of  Colorado,  was  marooned  by  his  profes- 
sion on  a  mining  property  in  Nicaragua.  Using  his  eyes  took  the  place 
with  him  of  tennis,  or  of  dissipation,  which  is  the  white  man's  bane  in  the 
tropics.  He  saw  that  a  certain  kind  of  ants  cut  the  leaves  of  trees  into 
bits  which  they  take  into  their  nests,  and  that  roses  and  other  introduced 
plants  fared  hard  with  these  leaf  cutters,  unless  they  were  protected  by 
aromatic  oils,  as  various  kinds  of    citrus  leaves  are,  or  in  some  other  way. 

Belt  did  not  fail  to  notice  that  ants  visited  extrafloral  nectaries  in 
numbers.  In  the  case  of  those  on  some  acacias  he  found  the  ants  very 
pugnacious.  I  confess  that  in  Guatemala  I  have  preferred,  myself,  to  go 
around  a  bush  or  a  grove  of  such  acacias  with  their  ant  guards.  As  with 
Sprengel's  geranium  hairs,  these  nectaries  unfolded  question  after  ques- 
tion. 

In  Belt's  case,  the  tips  of  the  acacia  leaflets  ripen  also  into  little  fruit- 
like   bodies    that    the    ants    gather    and  take  into  their  nests;    and  they 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  173 

make  these  nests  in  the  stipules  that  flank  each  leaf  and  sometimes  are 
shaped  like  a  pair  of  small  buffalo  horns.  It  is  an  interesting  undertaking 
to  get  the  ant  census  of  an  acacia  twig  of  this  sort.  The  danger  may  not 
be  as  great,  but  it  is  as  real  and  perhaps  as  painful  as  in  taking  the  cen- 
sus of  a  mountain  valley  noted  for  moonshine  traffic. 

Belt  drew  the  conclusion  that  extranuptial  nectar,  sometimes  supple- 
mented by  solid  food  and  shelter,  is  of  use  to  the  plant  that  provides  it  by 
maintaining  a  bodyguard  of  ants  on  plants  that  otherwise  would  be  de- 
foliated and  injured  by  leaf  cutters  or  grazing  animals,  much  as  Sprengel 
and  Darwin  found  an  explanation  of  nuptial  nectar  in  the  benefit  of  insect 
pollinization  of  the  flowers. 

This  is  the  simple  story  of  nectar,  simply  told,  as  it  has  been  seen  by 
observing  and  thinking  men.  But  it  is  not  a  story  free  from  complications. 
Our  blue  violets  rarely  set  fruit  from  their  showy  nectar-bearing  flowers, 
but  their  main  reliance  for  seed  is  on  flowers  produced  below  the  leaves, 
and  these  do  not  open,  but  are  self-fertilized.  The  beautiful  Poinsettia, 
with  its  brilliant  red  bracts  and  large  cups  overflowing  with  thick  nectar, 
does  not  fruit  in  West  Indian  gardens  any  more  than  it  does  in  our  green- 
houses at  Christmas  time.  And  irresistibly  pugnacious  as  the  acacia  ants 
are,  those  that  visit  our  paeonies  and  cassias  and  other  plants  do  not  usu- 
ally more  than  protest  mildly  if  we  molest  the  plants  that  they  are  on. 

Are  the  explanations  of  Sprengel  and  Darwin,  and  of  Belt  wrong?  No 
other  that  are  at  all  satisfactory  have  been  offered. 

When  one  stops  to  think  of  it,  the  secretion  of  nectar  is  an  ususual  phe- 
nomenon. Sugar  is  made  within  plants  and  it  does  not  leak  from  them  un- 
less they  have  been  injured.  The  sugar  beet  takes  various  substances  out 
of  the  soil  water,  but  it  does  not  permit  the  passage  of  sugar  into  the  soil 
water.  And  yet  nectar,  essentially  sugar,  is  passed  out  of  the  plant,  within 
which  it  was  manufactured.  This  is  because  it  is  secreted — or  excreted — 
through  specialized  glands.  Everyone  who  grows  plants  in  a  bay  window 
has  seen  young  clover  or  grass  leaves  with  a  drop  of  water  on  their  tips  at 
some  time  or  other.  A  few  grains  of  bird  seed  in  a  flower  pot  covered  by 
a  pane  of  glass  will  show  this  as  quickly  as  the  seedlings  come  up. 

These  drops  pass  out  finally  through  pores;  but  they  are  drops  of  water 
and  not  of  nectar.  If  we  can  imagine  a  gland  behind  such  a  water  pore, 
secreting  sugar — letting  it  really  get  out  of  the  cells  with  or  into  the  water, 
we  can  picture  a  nectar  gland.  Such  glands  occur  in  some  flowers.  Some 
botanists  believe  that  extranuptial  nectar  glands  were  originally  water 
glands  that  have  acquired  the  habit  of  secreting  sugar. 

This  habit  is  a  very  unusual  and  a  very  peculiar  one.  It  is  not  really 
understood  except  as  it  may  be  connected  with  usefulness  to  the  plant.  If 
this  usefulness  is  not  indirect,  in  the  ways  suggested  by  Darwin  and  Belt  or 
otherwise,  it  must  be  direct.  Water  glands  relieve  over-pressure  when  ab- 
sorption is  high  and  evaporation  low;  in  some  of  the  calla  family  the 
water  even  spurts  from  the  tips  of  the  leaves  at  times.  But  sugar  is  not 
like  water,  taken  in  in  quantity  and  to  spare;  it  is  manufactured,  and  in 
the  case  of  nectar  glands  it  is  manufactured  where  it  is  secreted.  Nobody 
has  yet  suggested  any  physiological  function   of  plants   calling  for  sugar 


174  AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 

safety  valves  situated  in  the  queer  positions  occupied  by  extranuptial  nec- 
tar glands,  and  no  satisfactory  direct  physiological  explanation  of  the 
nuptial  glands   has  been   suggested. 

The  actual  status  of  nectar  in  botanical  science  is  about  this  :  When  it 
is  produced  in  flowers,  and  in  some  cases  when  it  is  outside  of  them,  but 
near  them,  it  demonstrably  serves  to  secure  cross-pollinization  through  the 
aid  of  insects,  or  humming  birds  and  their  like,  when  the  flowers  are  long, 
tubular  and  red,  as  in  the  trumpet  creeper,  the  trumpet  honeysuckle  and  the 
scarlet  salvia.  It  is  then  "nuptial  nectar."  When  it  does  not  serve  the 
plant  in  this  way  and  so  is  "extranuptial,"  it  occurs  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  flowers,  as  in  cotton,  sweet  potato,  trumpet  creeper  and  paeony, 
where  it  attracts  numbers  of  ants,  which  are  often  very  pugnacious,  and  to 
the  extent  of  their  activities  it  prevents  injury  to  the  flower  buds  and  flow- 
ers, especially  in  their  early  stages  ;  or  it  occurs  on  developing  leaves  dur- 
ing the  period  of  their  greatest  need.  More  rarely,  as  in  the  acacias,  the 
leaves  continue  to  secrete  it  through  the  season,  so  that  those  that  are 
mature  add  to  the  protection  of  the  younger  leaves  and  the  flowers  and  the 
young  fruit. 

That  neither  of  these  functions  is  served  in  exceptional  cases,  and  that 
some  flowers  rely  on  the  wind  for  effective  pollination,  or  have  lapsed  into 
self-fertilization;  or  that  really  pugnacious  ants  do  not  commonly  frequent 
the  extranuptial  glands  of  most  plants  in  temperate  regions,  and  that  some 
plants  get  along  very  well  without  such  help,  mark  questions  that  will  con- 
tinue to  stimulate  observation  and  experiment.  But  nothing  now  known 
of  the  physiology  of  plants  offers  an  alternative  explanation  for  that  which 
connects  nectar  with  either  pollination  or  defense;  and  until  such  an  ex- 
planation can  be  found  nectar  will  continue  to  be  regarded  as  connected 
indirectly  with  these  services  through  insect  or  bird  relations. — William 
Trelease,  Botanist,  University  of  Illinois.  American  Bee  Journal,  Dec,  1919. 
(See  also  Physiology  of  Nectar  Secretion). 

NEGUNDO,  see  Box  Elder. 

NEVADA— Honey  Sources  of. 

Much  of  Nevada  is  mountain  and  desert  country.  Alfalfa  is  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  surplus  honey,  though  sweet  clover  also  yields.  There  are 
numerous  minor  sources,  as  willows  along  the  streams  and  many  of  the 
desert  plants. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK— Honey  Sources  of. 

In  New  Brunswick  the  principal  sources  of  nectar  are  alsike  and  white 
clover,  fireweed,  goldenrod  and  aster.  Willows  and  maples  stimulate  early 
brood  rearing. — F.  W.  L.  Sladen. 

NEW   HAMPSHIRE— Honey   Sources   of. 

The  honey  flora  of  New  Hampshire  is  very  similar  to  that  of  other  New 
England  States.  In  spring,  willows,  maples,  fruit  blossoms  and  dandelions 
keep  the  bees  busy  in  preparation  for  the  main  flow,  which  comes  from  the 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  175 

clovers.    Goldenrod  is  also  important.    Sumac,  laurel,  blueberries  and  asters 
are  worthy  of  mention,  also. 

NEW  JERSEY— Honey  Sources  of. 

Plants  from  which  nectar  is  gathered  in  less  than   surplus  quantities: 

Maples,  mid-March-early  April. 

Peach  early  April. 

Pear,  mid-April. 

Apple,  late  April  early  May. 

Willows,  late  April. 

Dandelion,  early  May. 

Wild  strawberry,  May. 

Lupine,  May. 

Raspberry,  May. 

Grape,  late  May-early  June. 

Huckleberry,  blueberry,  late  May-late  June. 

Persimmon, mid-June-late    June. 

Vervain,   late   June-early   September. 

Virginia  creeper,  late  June-late  July. 

Milkweed,  silkweed,  July. 

False  indigo,  July. 

Button  bush,  July. 

Burdock,  July-October. 

Tree  of  Heaven,  pride  of  China,  July. 

Catnip,  July 

Motherwort,  August. 

Smartweed,  heartsease,  late  August-mid-  September. 

Horsemint,  August-September. 

Boneset,  mid- August-Sept  ember. 

Surplus  honey  plants  : 

Crimson  clover,  mid-May. 
Locust,  May  20-June  1. 
Tulip-poplar,  May  26-June  10. 
Poison  ivy,  mid-May-mid-June. 
Holly,  late  May-late  June. 
Mountain  laurel,  late  May-late  June. 
Sheep  laurel,  late  May-late  June. 
Swedish  clover,  alsike  clover,  June  1-July  10. 
White  clover,  early  June-mid-July. 
Dogbane,  Indian  hemp,  early  June-late  August. 
Basswood,  linden,  late  June-early  July. 
California  privet,  mid-July-late  July. 
Sumac,  mid-June-mid-July. 
White  sweet  clover,  June-November. 
Cranberry,  June  15-August  15. 

August  flower,    soap  bush,  sweet  pepper  bush,  late  July-late  August. 
12 


176  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

Rose  mallow,  swamp  mallow,  late  July-early  September. 

Burdock,  July-November. 

Spanish  needle,  mid-August  into  October. 

Heartsease,  smartweed  or  blackheart,  August-September. 

Heath  aster,  white  aster  or  St.  Michaelmas  daisy,  late  August-mid-Oc- 
tober. 

Bushy  goldenrod,  late  August-mid-October. 

Buckwheat,  early  August. 

Surplus  Honey  Regions 

We  may  divide  the  State  of  New  Jersey  into  three  sections  on  the 
basis  of  surplus  honey  production. 

The  first  section  includes  all  of  the  southern  and  middle  counties  and 
the  southern  part  of  Middlesex,  Somerset  and  Hunterdon.  As  a  rule, 
the  surplus  honey  in  this  district  comes  from  clover.  There  are,  of  course, 
occasional  places,  such  as  low-lying  land  along  large  streams  where  a  sec- 
ond flow  is  harvested  in  late  summer  and  early  autumn. 

The  second  district  includes  all  north  of  the  first,  with  the  exception 
of  Hudson  County  and  a  part  of  Bergen,  Passaic,  Essex  and  Union.  In  this 
district  there  are  generally  two  distinct,  heavy  honey  flows,  the  first  from 
clover  and  the  last  from  buckwheat  and  fall  flowers,  such  as  goldenrod, 
aster,  etc. 

The  third  division,  which  roughly  includes  the  Passaic  and  Hacken- 
sack  Valleys,  and  the  Raritan  Valley  below  New  Brunswick,  rarely  produces 
any  surplus  honey  except  in  the  fall,  and  that  comes  from  goldenrod,  astc. 
and  mallows. 

The  presence  or  absence  of  a  single  kind  of  plant  will  often  decide 
whether  the  fall  flow  will  be  worth  consideration.  This  principle  applies 
more  particularly  to  the  second  district.  Should  the  amount  of  buckwheat 
sown  be  very  small  in  some  parts  of  this  region  the  fall  surplus  would  be 
missing.  In  certain  parts  of  this  second  district  white  sweet  clover  is 
found  in  great  abundance  and  furnishes  surplus  throughout  the  late  sum- 
mer and  early  fall. — Elmer  G.  Carr,  Manual  of  Bee  Husbandry. 

NEW  JERSEY  TEA  or  RED-ROOT  (Ceanothus  americanus). 

New  Jersey  tea  grows  from  one  to  three  feet  high  from  u  dark  red 
root,  hence  the  name  "red-root."  It  is  a  shrubby  plant  with  flowers  in 
white  clusters.  The  leaves  were  used  for  tea  during  the  revolutionary 
war.  It  is  common  in  woodlands  from  Ontario  to  Manitoba  and  south 
to  Arkansas,  Texas  and  Florida. 

It  is  not  often  mentioned  as  a  source  of  honey,  but  according  to  H.  B. 
Parks,  is  regarded  as  valuable  in  northwestern  Missouri.  (See  Mountain 
lilac.) 

NEW    MEXICO— Honey   Sources   of. 

Alfalfa  is  the  chief  source  of  surplus  honey  in  the  irrigated  regions 
of  New  Mexico.  There  are  some  districts  where  the  bloom  of  orchard 
fruits  is  important,  especially  for  spring  stimulation.  The  desert  flora 
offers  a  wide  variety  of  minor  sources,  with  a  few  of  surplus  importance, 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  177 

Among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned  mesquite,  catsclaw  and  cactus.     (See 
Arizona  and  Texas.)     Sweet   clover   is   also  important. 

NEW    YORK— Honey   Sources    of. 

W.  D.  Wright,  in  Bulletin  49  of  the  New  York  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, only  lists  a  few  plants  as  important  in  that  State.  He  mentions 
basswood  as  formerly  one  of  the  principal  sources  now  rapidly  passing 
away.  Alfalfa  is  mentioned  as  a  source  of  honey  in  central  New  York. 
Alsike  is  spoken  of  as  abundant  and  a  splendid  honey  producer.  Good 
yields  are  frequently  gathered  from  buckwheat  in  sections  where  it  is 
grown  extensively  and  it  seldom  fails  entirely.  Fruit  blossoms  and  black 
locust  bloom  before  the  colonies  are  sufficiently  strong  to  store  much  sur- 
plus, but  are  valuable  for  early  brood  rearing.  Sweet  clover,  sumac,  blue 
thistle  and  goldenrod  are  the  other  sources  mentioned.  The  failure  to 
mention  white  clover  is  evidently  an  oversight,  since  it  is  one  of  the 
most   important  sources   of  nectar   in   the   State. 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  Honey  Flora  of. 

Taking  the  State  as  a  whole,  sourwood,  poplar,  sometimes  called 
tulip  tree,  and  the  clovers,  are  the  three  leaders.  Of  these  three  leaders 
the  poplar  is  the  most  widely  distributed  and  is  prominently  mentioned 
in  all  sections,  from  east  to  west.  The  sourwood  is  principally  confined 
to  the  Piedmont  section,  though  reported  also  from  the  lower  mountain 
localities  and  from  the  western  border  of  the  eastern  region.  The  clovers 
are  found  in  all  parts,  though  more  abundant  in  the  mountain  and  Pied- 
mont sections.  Next  to  these  we  find  the  gallberry  (Vaccinium  sp.)  and 
black  gum,  both  taking  high  rank  and  both  found  principally  in  the  east. 
Persimmon  ranks  sixth  and  is  reported  principally  from  the  east,  sev- 
eral mentioning  it  as  irregular  in  yield  and  lasting  but  a  short  time,  but 
doing  well  for  a  short  period.  The  basswood  or  linden  comes  seventh 
and  is  reported  only  from  the  west.  Holly  and  huckleberry  (low  and 
high)  are  next  in  order,  both  being  in  the  east.  Buckwheat  follows  and  is 
confined  to  the  west. 

Twenty-four   leading  bee  pasturage  plants: 

Sourwood,  Piedmont  ;   little   east   and  west. 

Poplar   (tulip  tree),  all  sections. 

Clovers    (all   varieties),   west   and   Piedmont;    little   in   east. 

Gallberry,  east. 

Black  gum,  east. 

Persimmon,  east  and  Piedmont. 

Basswood    (linden,   linn),   west. 

Holly,  east. 

Huckleberry,  east. 

Buckwheat,  west. 

Ironweed   (aster),  Piedmont. 

Locust  (black  locust),  west  and  Piedmont. 

Aster,  all  sections. 

Cotton,  east  and  Piedmont. 


178  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

Stickweed   (Bidens). 
Fruit   trees,  all  kinds,   all  sections. 
Peas    (cow   peas),    Piedmont   and    east. 
Sumac. 

Nut   trees    (including  oak),   all   sections. 
Goldenrod,   all   sections. 
Rattan,  east. 
Blackberry,  all  sections. 
Maple  .all  varieties),  all  sections. 
Alfalfa,  locally  grown. 

— Franklin  Sherman,  Jr.,  Bui.  North  Carolina  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Vol.  29,  No.  1. 

NORTH   DAKOTA— Honey   Sources   of. 

Beekeeping  is,  as  yet,  but  little  developed  in  North  Dakota.  Willows 
and  cottonwoods  furnish  early  pollen,  dandelion  and  fruit  bloom  assist 
the  bees  with  both  nectar  and  pollen  for  early  brood  rearing.  The  clovers 
are   the  principal  sources   of  surplus   honey. 

NOVA  SCOTIA Honey  Sources   of. 

Willows  and  maples  are  important  for  spring  brood  rearing.  The 
sources  of  surplus  are  alsike  and  white  clover,  goldenrod,  aster,  apple, 
fall  dandelion  (T.  autumnale),  wild  radish  (R.  Raphanistrum),  blueberry 
and  Kalmia  angustifolia. — F.  W.  L.  Sladen. 


o 

OAK    (Quercus). 

The  oaks  are  frequently  reported  as  sources  of  nectar.  The  fac  . 
that  it  is  usually  honeydew,  rather  than  nectar,  which  the  bees  gather 
from  oaks.  Pollen  is  produced  in  abundance  by  these  trees  and  all  species 
may  be  regarded  as  valuable  for  pollen.  (Fig.  100.)  There  are  many  spe- 
cies of  oaks,  some  of  which  are  common  to  any  part  of  America  where 
trees  grow  naturally.  There  are  24  species  recorded  from  Alabama,  24 
from   New   Mexico   and    12   from   Connecticut. 

Richter  gives  4  species — field  oak  (Quercus  agrifolia),  tan  bark  (Q. 
ciensiflora),  mountain  white  oak  (Q.  douglassii)  and  weeping  oak  (Q.  lo- 
bata),  as  sources  of  honey  in  California.  Scholl  gives  6  species  as  sources 
of  honey  in  Texas,  as  follows  :  Post  oak  (Q.  minor),  live  oak  (Q.  virgin- 
iana),  red  oak  (Q.  rubra),  Spanish  oak  (Q.  palustris),  water  oak  (Q.  aqua- 
tica),  and  jack   or  barren   oak   (Q.  nigra). 

H.  B.  Parks,  of  the  Texas  Agricultural  College,  has  found  that  post 
cak  yields  some  nectar  from  extra  floral  nectaries.  This  may  be  true  of 
some  other  species. 

The  live  oak  yields  honeydew  in  large  quantity  in  west  Texas,  from 


:t   is 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


179 


the  balls  made  by  the  live  oak  gall.  George  Schmidt,  of  Crystal  City,  re- 
ports an  average  of  25  pounds  per  colony  from  live  oak  balls,  on  the 
Nueces  River,  in  1917.  The  honey  was  dark  and  heavy,  but  of  good  flavor. 
The  flow  lasted  till  frost.  There  are  numerous  similar  reports,  from 
west  Texas,  of  honeydew  from  this  source,  from  August  till  late  fall. 
During  the  drought  of  1917  and  1918  there  was  little  else  for  the  bees  in 
many  Texas  localities,  and  the  live  oak  saved  the  bees  from  starvation. 

Occasionally   the    bees    work   on    white    oaks    in    Illinois.     In    this   case 
they  are  attracted  by  the  presence  of  a  soft  scale  (Lycanium  cockerellii). 


1 

it 

la 

Fig.  100.     Pollen  bearing  blossoms  of  red  oak. 
OGECHE  PLUM,  see  Tupelo. 

OHIO —  Honey  Sources  of. 

The  sources  of  nectar  in  Ohio  are  very  similar  to  those  of  many  other 
States  in  the  great  central  basin,  where  white  and  alsike  clover  furnish 
the  principal  surplus.  There  is  the  usual  list  of  plants  furnishing  nectar 
and  pollen  for  early  spring,  such  as  willows,  maples,  fruit  blossoms,  dande- 
lions, etc.  The  main  flow  comes  from  white  and  alsike  clover  in  June  and 
July.  In  some  sections  buckwheat  yields  surplus.  Basswood,  which  was 
once   an   important   source   of   nectar,  has   been   cut   until   few   beekeepers 


180 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


are   able   to  get   crops   of   much   value   from   it.     Goldenrod   and   asters   are 
important  in  many  sections  for  late  fall. 

OKLAHOMA—    Honey    Sources    of. 

Fruit  blossoms  furnish  nectar  and  pollen  for  early  brood  rearing. 
Dandelions  and  willows  are  also  important  at  this  season.  Cottonwood 
yields  pollen  abundantly,  as  do  other  shade  trees.  Alfalfa  horsemint,  hore- 
hound,  sweet   clover   and   cotton   are   important   sources    of   surplus. 

Among  the  many  minor  sources  may  be  mentioned  Indian  currant,  but- 
ton  bush,   asters,  goldenrod,   milkweeds,   melons,   etc. 

OKRA  or  GUMBO. 

Cook's  Manual  lists  okra  as  a  honey  plant.  It  is  a  well-known  garden 
vegetable,  especially  popular  in  the  South,  but  is  seldom  grown  in  quan- 
tity sufficient  to  be  important   to  the  beekeeper. 

OLEASTER,  WILD  OLIVE,  RUSSIAN  OLIVE  (Elaeagnus  hortensis). 

The  Russian  oleaster,  known  botanically  as  Var  songorica  (Fig.  101) 
was  first  introduced  into  this  country  by  Professor  J.  L.  Budd  because  of 
its    hardiness    and    ornamental   qualities.     The    young    trees    branch    freely 


Fig.   101.      Oleaster  or  Russian  Olive. 


and  produce  an  abundance  of  white,  scurfy  foliage,  which  makes  it  a  most 
attractive  and  striking  shrub.  *  *  *  It  is  one  of  the  most  fragrant  of 
cultivated  small  trees.  The  season  of  blossoming  varies  somewhat,  but 
with  us  (Iowa)  is  about  the  middle  or  early  part  of  June. 

It  is  one  of  the  best  of  our  spring  honey  plants.     The  bees  visit  the 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  181 

plant  in  large  numbers  when  in  full  bloom  from  eariy  morning  until  late 
evening. — L.  H.  Pammel,  American  Bee  Journal,  November,   1917. 

Eleaegnus  argentea,  wolf  willow  or  silverberry.  It  is  said  to  yield 
honey  on  the  prairies. — W.  J.  Sheppard,  British  Columbia.  American  Bee 
Journal,  November,  1917. 

OLIVE   (Olea  europaea). 

The  olive  is  generally  cultivated  in  orchards  throughout  California. 
Richter  states  that  his  bees,  within  easy  reach  of  several  thousand  olive 
trees,  do  not  work  on  them,  but  that  T.  O.  Andrews,  of  Corona,  and  B.  B. 
Hogaboom,  of  Elk  Grove,  report  bees  working  well  on  olive  bloom.  He 
further  states  that  the  olive  tree  is  a  well  known  source  of  honey  in  Spain. 

ONION    (Allium). 

According  to  Richter,  wild  onions  sometimes  yield  surplus  honey  in 
the  vicinity  of  Sacramento,  California.  In  some  parts  of  that  State,  where 
cultivated  onions  (Allium  cepa)  are  grown  for  seed,  they  are  also  im- 
portant. The  onion  yields  freely  and  the  honey  is  said  to  be  amber  in 
color  with  a  characteristic  onion  flavor  which  disappears  after  the  honey 
i>  fully  ripened.  There  are  few  localities  where  onions  are  sufficiently 
abundant   to   be    important. 

ONTARIO— Honey  Sources  of. 

The  principal  honey  plants  of  Ontario,  in  the  order  of  their  import- 
ance, are  alsike  and  white  Dutch  clover,  buckwheat,  basswood,  fireweed, 
wild  raspberry,  goldenrod,  aster,  dandelion,  sweet  clover,  viper's  bugloss, 
Canada   thistle,   milkweed   and   boneset. 

Buckwheat,  basswood,  sweet  clover,  viper's  bugloss,  milkweed  and 
boneset  are  confined  principally  to  the  southern  part  of  the  province. 
Willows  and  maples  are  important  for  early  spring  brood  rearing.— F.  W. 
L.  Sladen. 

OPUNTIA,  see  Prickly  Pear. 

ORANGE   (Citrus  aurantium). 

The  orange  tree  is  a  native  of  Asia,  early  introduced  by  the  colonists 
into  Florida.  It  thrives  in  a  semi-tropical  climate  and  its  culture  in 
America  is  confined  to  southern  Florida,  a  few  small  areas  along  the  Gulf 
Coast,  the  lower  Rio  Grande  Valley  in  Texas  and  to  California.  It  is 
sensitive  to  frost  and  the  trees  are  easily  killed  by  freezing. 

In  California,  orange  is  one  of  the  important  sources  of  honey.  The 
trees  bloom  in  April,  when  many  colonies  are  too  weak  to  make  the  most 
oj  the  crop.  The  flow  is  extremely  rapid,  as  at  times  the  nectar  is  se- 
creted in  such  abundance  that  men  and  horses  working  in  the  orchards 
are  saturated  with  it.  The  flow  lasts  about  three  weeks.  In  1919  it  con- 
tinued 23  days  in  Tulare  County.  Four  hundred  colonies  in  one  yard  aver- 
aged more  than  60  pounds  per  colony  from  orange.  O.  F.  Darnell,  of  Por- 
terville,  extracted  171  pounds  of  orange  honey  from  one  colony  in  ten  days, 
after  having  previously  extracted  24  frames  which  were  not  weighed.     A. 


182  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

W.  Gambs,  of  Anderson,  reported  that  some  colonies,  made  extra  strong 
by  drifting  bees,  stored  four  full-depth  extracting  supers  of  fresh  nectar 
from  orange  in  four  days. 

In  some  of  the  interior  valley  locations  the  bees  get  fair  crops  from 
orange  about  four  years  in  five.  Along  the  coast,  the  fogs  are  unfavorable 
and  the  crop  is  uncertain.  Good  orange  locations  are  much  in  demand, 
and  many  beekeepers  move  their  bees  long  distances  for  the  flow.  With  a 
larger  reserve  supply  of  honey,  left  in  the  hives  for  winter  to  enable  the 
bees  to  build  up  early  in  spring,  and  with  more  careful  attention  to  winter- 
ing, it  would  be  possible  to  greatly  increase  the  average  returns  from 
orange.  This  statement  is  based  on  the  results  of  a  few  beekeepers  who 
take  special  pains  to  get  their  bees  into  condition  for  the  orange  flow. 

The  honey  from  orange  is  white  in  color,  heavy  in  body,  of  the  finest 
quality,  and  is  much  in  demand  in  the  markets. 

OREGON  CRAB  APPLE,  see  Crab  Apple. 

OREGON— Honey  Sources  of. 

J.  W.  Wills,  of  Marion  County,  Oregon,  lists  the  principal  honey  plants 
of  that  State  in  the  American   Bee  Journal  as  follows: 

Willow,  chickweed,  balm-of-Gilead,  salmonberry,  dandelion,  fruit  trees, 
grapes,  currants,  gooseberries,  maples,  clover,  Juneberry,  barberry,  huckle- 
berries, laurel,  milkweed,  lobelia,  catnip,  snowberry,  arrowwood,  Spanish 
needle   and  some   others. 

P.  W.  Nicolle,  in  Gleanings,  adds  that  chittam  (Rhamnus  purshiana) 
is  one  of  the  principal  sources.  He  mentions,  also,  salal  (Gaultheria  shal- 
lon)  as  a  source  of  nectar.  Salal  is  frequently  mentioned  as  valuable  in 
Oregon. 

OREGON   GRAPE   (Berberis   nervosa). 

Oregon  grape  is  common  in  the  woodlands  near  the  Coast  from  Marin 
County,  California,  northward.  It  is  abundant  in  the  forest  regions  of 
Washington.  It  is  a  shrub  with  prickly  alternate  leaves  and  yellow  flowers 
in  racemes.  Oregon  grape  is  reported  as  a  source  of  honey  of  minor  im- 
portance in  the  Northwest.  Like  the  agarites  or  triple-leaved  barberry 
of  Texas,  it  blooms  in  early  spring  when  it  is  of  special  value  for  stimula- 
tive purposes.  Another  species  of  barberry  (Berberis  Aquifolium)  is 
common  to  this  region,  and  most  beekeepers  do  not  differentiate  between 
the  two  species.     (See  Barberry.) 

OREOCARYA. 

A  desert  plant  growing  on  high,  loose,  sandy  soils.  Blooms  in  May, 
with  a  small  bur  following  the  bloom.  It  ranges  from  Wyoming  to  Ari- 
zona and  west  Texas.  It  yields  nectar  freely  and  an  average  of  forty 
pounds  per  colony  has  been  reported  from  this  source.  The  honey  is  light 
amber,  of  inferior  flavor,  according  to  D.  W.  Spangler,  of  Longmont,  Colo- 
rado, but  it  is  extremely  valuable  for  building  up  colonies  in  spring.  Ex- 
tended cultivation  is  rapidly  reducing  the  area  where  the  plant  is  to  be 
found. 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS  183 


PALM. 

Royal  palms  (Roystonea  regia)  are  very  abundant  in  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico  and  are  probably  the  most  characteristic  trees  of  those  islands. 
They  are  also  to  be  found  to  some  extent  in  the  southern  portions  of  the 
United  States.  As  sources  of  honey  these  trees  are  important  in  the 
West  Indies,  where   they  yield   nectar   abundantly. 

The  date  palm  (Phoenix  dactylifera)  has  been  planted  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent in  the  desert  regions  of  the  Southwestern  United  States.  This  species 
is  reputed  to  be  a  splendid  source  of  nectar. 

The  cocoanut  palm  (Cocos  nucifera)  is  the  most  important  of  all  the 
palm  trees,  since  the  nuts  furnish  large  quantities  of  fond,  much  used  in 
tropical  countries.  This  species  is  common  in  the  West  Indies  and  in 
southern  Florida.  Although  the  source  of  considerable  honey  it  is  not 
equal  to  the  foregoing  species  as  a  source  of  nectar.     (See  also  Palmetto). 

PALMETTO    (Sabal). 

The  palmettos  are  the  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  flora  of  the 
south  half  of  Florida.  (Fig.  104.)  The  cabbage  palmetto  is  a  tree,  while 
the  saw  or  scrub  palmetto  grows  more  like  the  underbrush  in  northern 
forests.  To  the  man  accustomed  to  dense  forests,  the  open,  park-like 
growth  of  the  palmettos  hardly  seems  like  woodland.  The  illustration 
gives  a  good  idea  of  the  typical  Florida  landscape. 

This  group  of  plants  is  not  important  in  America,  outside  of  the  State 
of  Florida.  A  small  area  in  lower  Texas,  about  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande  River,  is  covered  by  a  species  of  palmetto  closely  resembling  the 
cabbage  palmetto,  but  it  is  thought  to  be  a  different  species.  An  occa- 
sional tree  is  also  found  along  the  seacoast  as  far  north  as  Charleston, 
S.  C.  They  are  to  be  found  also  as  street  trees  in  various  southern 
cities  along  the  Gulf  Coast  and  in  south  Texas.  The  small  saw  palmetto 
(Serenoa  serrulata)  also  extends  its  range  into  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas, 
in   open   pine   woodlands. 

In  Florida  both  forms  are  sufhcientl}'  abundant  to  furnish  nectar  in 
quantity  worthy  the  attention  of  the  commercial  beekeeper.  However,  in 
too  many  localities  there  is  little  else  available,  so  that  the  season  between 
flows  is  too  long  to  make  beekeeping  worth  while.  To  take  advantage  of 
the  palmetto  flows  and  at  the  same  time  get  good  crops  through  the  rest 
of  the  year,  the  late  O.  O.  Poppleton  practiced  migratory  beekeeping.  His 
apiaries  were  moved  several  times  during  the  year,  so  as  to  be  near  dif- 
ferent sources  in  the  period  of  bloom.  The  great  drawback  to  beekeeping 
in  Florida  is  the  lack  of  a  sufficient  variety  of  honey  plants   in   one  loca- 


184 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


tion  to  support  the  bees  profitably  throughout  the  year.     There  are  a  few 
localities,  of  course,  where  this  does  not  apply. 

The  cabbage  palmetto  (Sabal  palmetto)  (Fig.  102)  gets  its  name  from 
the  cabbage-like  formation  in  the  bud  at  the  top  of  the  growing  trunk. 
The   tree   grows  25   to  35   feet   in   height   and   has   large   fan-shaped   leaves 


Fig.    102.     Cabbage   palmetto   in   bloom. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


185 


several  feet  long.  It  grows  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  the  north  line  of 
Florida,  but  in  the  interior  is  not  found  in  abundance  more  than  about 
two-thirds   of  the   way. 

The  tree  blooms  during  July  and  August,  the  latter  date  applying  to 
northern  parts  of  the  State.  The  blossoms  are  very  delicate  and  have 
been  likened  by  Professor  Baldwin  to  a  giant  ostrich  plume.  (Fig.  105). 
According  to  his  statement,  the  flowerlets  are  sensitive  to  weather  condi- 


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tions.  Too  much  moisture  blights  them,  while  the  opposite  extreme  blasts 
the  delicate  bloom.  As  a  consequence,  it  does  not  yield  abundantly  more 
than  about  one  year  in  three,  although  at  times  it  yields  very  profusely. 

"On  the  St.  Lucie  River,  Mr.  Hill  extracted,  barreled  and  shipped 
3,500  pounds  of  palmetto  honey  from  55  colonies  in  two  weeks." — Page 
489,  American  Bee  Journal,  1899. 

While  palmetto  honey  is  regarded  as  of  very  high  quality,  the  honey 
from  the  cabbage  tree  is  rather  thin  and  requires  some  care  in  getting  it 
properly  ripened,  as  the  following  quotations  will  show: 

"Cabbage  palmetto  honey,  sealed  or  unsealed,  will  foam  as  though 
fermentation  was  in  progress;  that  taken  from  the  combs  unsealed  will 
ferment  enough  to  deprive  it  of  all  the  honey  flavor,  but  the  sealed  only 
foams.  Thin  and  acid  and  amber  in  color,  it  will  flow  bubbling  from 
the  cells  behind  the  knife,  and  it  is  not  a  rare  thing  to  see  gas  bub- 
bles under  the  cappings  of  the  sealed  cells.  Whether  the  colonies  are 
strong  or  weak,  it  is  always  the  same,  when  the  bees  work  on  the  cab- 
bage trees,  as  the  common  palm  tree  of  Florida  is  called.     The  name 


186  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

comes  from  the  fact  that  the  bud  in  the  head  at  the  top  is  eaten  in 
lieu    of    cabbage. 

"The  saw  palmetto  is  decidedly  different  in  the  nectar  it  yields. 
Saw  palmetto  honey,  even  unsealed,  may  be  called  a  good  honey,  and 
it  is,  too.  When  ripened  it  is  a  hone}'  that  makes  a  name  for  itself 
when  enough  care  is  taken  by  the  producer  to  have  it  unmixed  with 
other  nectars. 

"I  write  from  personal  experience  on  the  east  coast  of  Florida." — 
L.  K.  Smith,  Gleanings,  page  39,  1909. 


Fig.  104.     The  palmettos  are  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  Florida  landscape. 

The  saw  palmetto  (Serenoa  serrulata),  often  called  scrub  palmetto 
(Fig.  103),  is  a  low  growing  little  palm,  found  on  dry  soils  in  the  Gulf 
Coast  region.  In  the  southern  portion  of  its  range,  in  peninsular  Florida, 
it  attains  the  proportions  of  a  small  tree.  There  it  sometimes  reaches  a 
height  of  20  feet,  with  erect  or  inclined  trunk.  Further  north  the  stem  is 
almost  invariably  underground.  Large  areas  of  pine  lands  are  covered 
with   it. 

The  blooming  time  is  April  and  May.  O.  O.  Poppleton  wrote  con- 
cerning his   calendar  of  the  year: 

"April — Saw  palmetto  flow  commences  early  in  the  month  and  con- 
tinues until  last  of  May.  Our  apiary  work  these  two  months  is  ex- 
tracting, building  up  all  colonies  and  replacing  poor  queens." — Bee- 
keepers' Review,  page  11,   1893. 

Concerning  the  honey  flow  from  saw  palmetto  we  quote  E.  G.  Baldwin 
as  follows  : 

"The  honey  from  saw  palmetto  is  lemon-yellow  in  color,  thick  and 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


L87 


Fig.  105.     Bloom  of  the  cabbage  palmetto. 


188 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


waxy  and  of  pronounced  but  delicious  flavor.  It  is  not  quite  so  trans- 
parent as  pure  orange  honey,  but  seldom  candies,  and  makes  a  choice 
table  article.  Mr.  O.  O.  Poppleton  pronounces  it  the  best  honey  in 
Florida,  with  the  possible  exception  of  tupelo.  It  is  liked  by  almost 
everyone  at  first  taste;  is  a  trifle  milder,  even,  than  orange." — Glean- 
ings, page  177,  1911. 

Forest  fires  frequently  destroy  many  square  miles  of  the  saw  pal- 
metto, thus  removing  this  source  of  nectar  for  one  year.  However,  ac- 
cording to  Baldwin,  the  burned-over  portions  usually  produce  the  most 
honey  the  following  year. 

Concerning  the  flow  from  palmetto,  E.  B.  Rood,  of  Bradentown,  writes 
as  follows : 

"We  have  been  having  the  heaviest  honey  flow  from  palmetto  for 
ten  years.  One  colony  on  scales  brought  in  50  pounds  in  four  days, 
and  80  pounds  in  ten  days.  I  expect  20,000  to  30.000  pounds.  I  have 
extracted  13,000  pounds  now  and  am  just  starting  on  another  round." — 
Gleanings,  page  703,  1908. 


Fig. 


Partridge  pea. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  189 

PARADISE  FLOWER,  see  Acacia. 

PARSNIP    (Pastinaca    sativa). 

The  cultivated  parsnip  is  a  valuable  honey  plant.  In  the  seed  belt  of 
California,  where  it  is  grown  largely  for  seed,  it  is  important  as  a  source  of 
surplus.  Writing  in  Gleanings  (November,  1919)  E.  R.  Root  mentions  having 
seen  hives  five  and  six  stories  high,  jammed  full  of  honey  from  parsnip 
and  celery.  He  states  that  the  honey  is  not  of  the  best,  and  that  honey 
from  parsnip   is   inferior   to   that   gathered   from   celery. 

PARTRIDGE  PEA  (Cassia  Chamaechrista). 

Partridge  pea,  known  also  as  sensitive  pea,  is  an  important  source  of 
honey  in  Georgia  and  Florida.  The  flowers,  of  an  attractive  yellow  color, 
are  about  the  size  shown  in  Figure  106,  which  displays  blossom,  seedpod 
and  leaf.  This  plant  is  common  along  sandy  roadsides  in  the  Middle 
West,  and  may  at  times  be  found  for  miles  at  a  stretch.  It  is  seldom  re- 
ported as  an  important  source  of  surplus  honey,  except  in  the  South- 
eastern States.  While  the  bees  visit  it  freely  while  in  bloom  in  the 
Northern  States,  the  honey  stored  from  this  source  is  seldom  noticeable. 

The  plant  is  peculiar  in  that  in  addition  to  the  flowers,  nectar  is  se- 
creted by  extra  floral  nectaries  at  the  base  of  the  leaf  stalk  or  petiole. 
The  bloom  lasts  for  several  weeks  in  midsummer.  As  the  bloom  comes 
for  the  most  part  after  the  close  of  the  clover  harvest,  its  chief  value  in 
the  North  is  to  keep  the  bees  occupied  till  the  later  flowers  furnish  a  fall 
flow.  The  quality  stored  from  this  source  is  reported  as  poor  in  the 
North. 

In  contrast,  the  following  report  indicates  that  it  is  valuable  in  Geor- 
gia and  Florida  : 

"Bees    store    from    one    to    three    supers,    during    its    flow,    of    light 

honey.     The   flow  begins   in  June   and  lasts  until  October. "—Wilder   in 

American  Bee  Journal,  page  369,  1912. 

PEACH  (Prunus  persica). 

The  cultivated  peach  is  an  important  source  of  nectar  over  a  wide  scope 
of  country.  In  localities  where  large  peach  orchards  are  found,  it  is  im- 
portant for  building  up  colonies  in  spring.  Like  most  of  the  tree  fruits, 
the  blooming  period  comes  early,  before  the  bees  are  strong  enough  to 
profit  to  the  fullest   extent  from   the   abundance   of  nectar. 

PEAR    (Pyrus). 

The  cultivated  pear  is  old-world  origin,  but  now  widely  distributed 
in  America.  Where  grown  commercially,  it  is  the  source  of  abundant  nec- 
tar and  pollen  in  early  spring.  Most  varieties  of  the  pear  bloom  ahead  of 
the  apple.  Nearly  all  the  tree  fruits  furnish  nectar  in  abundance  and  all 
are  valued  highly  by  the  beekeeper. 

The  pear  is  subject  to  blight,  which  destroys  thousands  of  trees  every 
year.  For  a  time  the  honeybee  was  accused  of  spreading  the  blight  by  her 
visits  from  tree  to  tree.    There  is  now  serious  doubt  whether  it  is  possi- 


190 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


ble  for  the  bee  to  spread  this  disease.  Experiments  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Merrill, 
at  Kansas  Agricultural  College,  indicate  that  the  aphids  are  the  carriers 
of   the   infection. 

PENNSYLVANIA— Honey   sources   of. 

Pennsylvania  is  in  what  is  generally  known  as  the  white  clover  region. 
White  and  alsike  clover  are  of  first  importance.  Buckwheat,  in  some  sec- 
tions, is  also  a  main  source  of  surplus.  In  spring,  the  willows  and  maples, 
followed  by  dandelion  and  fruit  bloom,  furnish  both  nectar  and  pollen  for 
early  brood   rearing.     In    the   mountains,   azalea   and   laurel    furnish    some 


Fig.  107.     Blossoms  of  Clethra.  or  sweet  pepper  bush. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


191 


honey.  Black  locust,  tulip-poplar  and  sumac  are  valuable  in  certain  lo- 
calities. Basswood,  goldenrod  and  asters  should  also  be  included  as  of 
local  importance. 

PENNYROYAL,   see    Wild    Pennyroyal. 

PEONY. 

The  cultivated  peonies  are  introduced  from  Asia  and  are  commonly 
grown  for  ornament.  Most  varieties  are  double'  and  produce  no  pollen. 
The  single  varieties,  however,  produce  pollen  in  abundance,  and  at  times 
the  bees  seek  them  eagerly.  The  writer  has  seen  as  many  as  six  to  eight 
bees  gathering  pollen  on  a  single  blossom.  The  opening  buds  also  seem 
to  exude  a  nectar-like  substance  sought  by  ants  and  bees. 

PEPPERBUSH   or  WHITE  ALDER   (Clethra  alnifolia). 

The  sweet  pepperbush  occurs  from  Maine  along  the  coast  to  Florida 
and  west  to  Louisiana.  It  is  a  small  shrub  with  white  flowers,  as  shown  in 
Figure  107,  which  appear  in  midsummer.  In  Alabama,  Georgia  and  north 
Florida,  it  is  common  in  the  coast  plain,  on  swampy  banks  of  streams  and 
in  low,  wet  thickets.  It  is  very  fragrant  when  in  bloom  and  is  often  used 
for  ornamental  planting  on  lawns  and  in  parks.  The  honey  is  thick,  white 
and  of  fine  flavor.  In  localities  where  the  plant  occurs  abundantly,  in  the 
wild  state,  it  seldom  fails  to  bloom,  since  it  grows  in  wet  places  and  is 
unaffected  by  drought. 


Fig.  10S.     Blossoms  and  fruits  of  pepper  tree. 


192  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

PEPPERIDGE,  see  Tupelo. 

PEPPER-TREE   (Schinus   molle). 

The  pepper-tree,  a  native  of  western  South  America,  has  been  widely 
planted  in  California  for  ornament  and  shade.  Its  bright  red  berries  are  a 
substitute  for  pepper,  hence  the  name.  It  is  a  well-known  tree  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  as  far  north  as  Martinez,  on  the  Suisun  Bay.  It  is  grown 
in  parks,  on  lawns  and  along  the  streets  of  nearly  every  Southern  Califor- 
nia  city. 

While  a  small  amount  of  bloom  may  be  seen  at  almost  any  time  of 
the  year,  its  principal  period  is  in  late  summer  when  there  is  a  scarcity 
of  nectar-secreting  blossoms  (Fig.  108).  The  blossoms  are  rich  in  nectar 
and  the  bees  gather  some  surplus  from  this  source.  The  honey  is  amber 
in  color,  strong  and  rather  peppery  in  flavor. 

The  flowers  are  small  and  of  a  greenish  or  yellowish  color,  in  large 
sprays.    The  berries  ripen  in  November  and  December. 

PEPPER-VINE,  see  Snowvine. 
PERSICARIA,  see   Heartsease. 

PERSIMMON   (Diospyros). 

The  persimmon,  or  possom-wood  (Diospyros  virginiana),  grows  from 
southern  New  England  south  and  west  to  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Florida  and 
along  the  gulf  to  Texas.  It  is  a  tree  of  medium  size,  reaching  a  height  of 
50  feet  and  rarely  exceeding  12  inches  in  diameter.  (Fig.  109).  The  fruit 
is  composed  of  a  rich  and  palatable  pulp  and  a  few  large  seeds.  When 
green  it  is  very  astringent  and  very  disagreeable.  The  flowers  appear 
in  May  in  the  southern  part  of  its  range,  and  later  northward.  Where 
abundant,  persimmon  is  a  valuable  source  of  nectar.  The  Mexican  per- 
simmon Diospyros  Texana),  called  also  date  plum,  is  a  shrub  or  tree  10 
to  30  feet  in  height.  It  thrives  best  in  canyons  and  ravines,  and  is  com- 
mon over  much  of  south  Texas.  It  is  frequently  reported  as  an  import- 
ant source  of  early  nectar  in  many  parts  of  Texas. 

Franklin  Sherman,  Jr.,  lists  the  persimmon  as  sixth  in  importance  of 
the  honey  sources  of  North  Carolina.  He  states  that  it  is  irregular  in  yield 
and  lasts  but  a  short  time,  but  does  well  while  it  lasts. 

PHACELIA  (Phacelia). 

Jepson  described  thirteen  species  of  phacelia  as  native  to  California. 
Of  these  Richter  lists  four  as  of  value  to  the  beekeeper.  Hill  vervenia 
(Phacelia  distans)  he  lists  as  common  in  the  plains  and  foothills,  yielding 
both  nectar  and  pollen.  The  caterpillar  phacelia  (Phacelia  hispida)  is 
listed  as  common  in  the  chaparral  belt,  yielding  a  water-white  honey  of 
fine  flavor  that  candies  soon  after  extracting.  This  is  common  in  Ventura 
County,  and  M.  H.  Mendleson  reports  that  he  extracted  a  carload  of  honey 
from  this  source  before  the  blooming  of  the  sages.  Phacelia  ramosissima 
is  reported  as  a  fair  honey  plant,  but  not  equal  to  the  others.  The  valley 
vervenia,   or    fiddle    neck     (Phacelia     tanacetifolia)     is     listed    by    Jepson 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


m 


persimmon  tree. 


("Flora  of  Western  Middle  California")  as  found  in  the  Sacramento  Val- 
ley and  southward  to  southern  California.  It  blooms  in  April  and  fur- 
nishes bee  pasture  in  about  six  weeks  from  seed,  and  the  bloom  lasts 
about  six  weeks. 


194  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

"The  nectar  flows  all  day.  The  honey  is  amber  in  color,  sometimes 
light  green  and  of  a  mild  aromatic  flavor.  Cows  fed  on  it  show  a 
marked  increase  in  flow  of  milk,  but  will  not  eat  it  alone  at  first." — 
Harry  E.  Home,  page  342  of  above  book. 

This  species  was  introduced  into  Germany  and  had  quite  a  boom 
there  in  the  early  nineties.  Much  attention  was  given  it  in  the  German 
bee  magazines  and  it  was  endorsed  as  valuable  both  for  forage  and  for  bee 
pasturage. 

Scholl  lists  Phacelia  congesta  and  Phacelia  glabra  as  yielding  spar- 
ingly in  Texas.  Thos.  Wm.  Cowan  writes  as  follows,  in  American  Bee 
Journal,  in  regard  to  the  growing  of  phacelia  in  Europe: 

"The    one    grown    in    Europe,    Phacelia    tanacetifolia,    is    literally 
covered   with   bees    from   morning   till    night.     The    species   was    intro- 
duced into   Europe   from  California   in   1832,  and  is   called  tanacetifolia 
(tansy-leaved)    from   the   resemblance   of   its   leaves   to   those   of   tansy. 
It    is    an     annual     with     bluish     pink     flowers,     racemes     spike-formed, 
elongated,  corymbose;  height  of  plant  two  feet.     It  is  grown  in  Europe 
as  a  bee  plant  for  its  nectar,  and  is   the  only  one  which   produces   an 
appreciable  quantity  of  it." — November  20,  1902,  page  751. 
A  beekeeper  from  Indiana  reports  that  Phacelia  purshii  grows   freely 
in  the  wheat  fields  in  his  locality  and  that  the  bees  work  freely  on  the  blue 
flowers.     He   states  that   in  places   it  grows   so  abundantly  that   the  wheat 
takes  second  place  to  the  phacelia.    On  the  27th  of  May,  1919,  strong  colo- 
nies   already   had    full    depth    extracting   supers    almost    filled.     The   honey 
from  this  source  is  of  good  quality. 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  NECTAR  SECRETION. 

What  we  call  individual  plants  are  complex  communities  of  real  mi- 
croscopic individuals,  which  biologists  call  cells.  These  are  associated  in 
numerous  sub-communities  differing  from  one  another  in  structure  and 
function.  Their  specialization  results  in  a  division  of  labor  and  a  corre- 
spondingly large  total  efficiency,  much  as  specialization  and  division  of 
labor  lead  to  efficiency  and  productive  possibilities  in  a  nation  consisting 
of  states,  and  these  of  smaller  communities  made  up  of  trades,  guilds  and 
professions,  which  in  co-operation  follow  the  manifold  activities  that 
characterize  a  nation  and  collectively  constitute  the  national  life  of  its  in- 
dividuals, which  is  far  more  effective  and  greater  than  the  individual  life 
of  any  one  person  or  class. 

The  active,  living  part  of  a  cell  is  its  protoplasm — the  physical  basis 
of  life,  as  Huxley  called  it  in  animals  and  plants  alike.  Commonly  this 
protoplasm  encloses  itself  by  a  wall  of  cellulose,  an  organic  substance 
manufactured  by  the  protoplasm.  Where  two  cells  are  in  contact,  they 
are  usually  flattened  against  one  another.  When  men  first  began  to  use 
the  microscope,  only  a  little  over  two  centuries  ago,  it  was  the  walls  and 
shapes  of  cells  that  attracted  attention,  and  the  resemblance  to  honey- 
comb on  a  small  scale  was  so  striking  that  the  cavities  were  naturally 
called  cells. 

Protoplasm  itself  is  a  very  complex  substance,  chemically,  and  even 
the  much  simpler  cell-wall  is  far  from  being  always  really  one  identical 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  195 

substance.  A  considerable  part  of  the  thickening  of  matured  cell-walls 
has  been  laid  down  on  the  original  partition  between  two  cells,  and  not 
only  differs  from  this  but  is  not  alike  in  different  kinds  of  cells,  and  in 
structures  like  wood  and  cork  it  is  impregnated  with  other  materials  that 
affect  the  cell-wall  very  greatly  in  such  respects  as  hardness  and  permea- 
bility to  water. 

The  shells  of  nuts,  for  instance,  are  so  impervious  that  they  are  com- 
monly "stratified"  by  planters  so  that  their  hard  shells  may  disintegrate 
more  or  less  as  a  preliminary  to  germination,  a  process  that  not  infre- 
quently requires  more  than  a  year  unless  hastened  by  some  expedient  like 
that  of  passing  haw  fruits  through  the  digestive  mill  of  poultry  as  a  means 
of  softening  their  boney  cores,  of  filing  the  hard  envelope,  which  is  a 
favorite  trick  of  gardeners  with  nut-like  fruits  of  the  lotus  or  with  canna 
seeds.  (This  is  similar  to  the  scarifying  of  sweet  clover  seed. — Editor.) 
This  is  the  reason  that  several  times  as  much  clover  seed — even  good 
seed — must  be  used  on  an  acre  as  seems  necessary  for  securing  the  de- 
sired number  of  plants.  One  of  these  modifications  is  usual  in  the  outer 
byers  of  cell-walls  on  the  surface,  and  it  is  called  cuticularization.  Cuti- 
cularized  walls  are  more  or  less  completely  water-proofed.  When  the  cells 
that  produce  nectar  are  at  the  surface,  their  outer  walls  are  cuticularized 
in  this  way;  when  they  are  within  the  nectary  and  the  nectar  passes  out 
through  stomata,  this  is  scarcely,  if  at  all,  the  case. 

The  greater  part  of  nectar  is  water,  which  reaches  the  surface  from 
within  the  plant  cells.  To  do  this  it  must  pass  through  walls  that  are 
little,  if  at  all,  cuticularized,  or  it  must  break  through  the  cuticle.  This 
does  not  mean  that  it  must  break  through  the  entire  cell-wall;  a  small 
part  if  this  is  modified  by  the  protoplasm  into  a  gum  or  mucilage,  or  some 
similar  substance,  and  the  water  accumulates  in  this  layer  and  swells  it 
until  the  overlying  cuticle  is  burst.  Some  form  of  sugar  is  a  frequent 
result  of  this  disintegration  of  cellulose.  Dissolved  sugars  pass  through 
the  ordinary  cellulose  wall,  but  they  do  not  pass  through  the  ordinary 
surface  layer  of  protoplasm  in  the  outer  cells. 

When  water  is  separated  from  a  solution  like  that  of  sugar  by  a  filter 
of  tli is  sort,  which  allows  water  to  pass  but  is  not  permeable  to  the  dis- 
solved substance,  the  action  is  set  up  that  physicists  call  osmosis,  and 
water  accumulates  on  the  side  of  the  dissolved  substance  until  it  exer- 
cises a  very  considerable  pressure.  This  action  not  only  bursts  the  cuticle, 
when  it  starts  beneath  it,  but  results  in  a  flow  of  water  within  the  plant 
at   that  point. 

The  absorbing  roots  of  plants  show  another  result  of  this  physical 
property,  osmosis.  They  are  not  waterproofed;  water  is  continuous 
through  them,  from  the  thin  layer  in  which  it  occurs  about  particles  of  the 
soil,  to  the  water  which  composes  a  great  part  of  the  weight  of  the  proto- 
plasm within  the  cells.  This  sap  of  the  root  cells  contains  dissolved  sugar 
and  other  osmotic  substances.  Osmotic  absorption  by  the  roots  results  in 
a.  pressure  of  several  atmospheres.  This  pressure,  passed  from  cell  to  cell, 
gives  the  crispness  to  fresh  celery.  Its  loss,  through  evaporation  from  the 
leaves,  results  in  the  loss  of  this  crispness,  or  wilting. 


196 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


When  evaporation  is  slight,  as  in  a  saturated  atmosphere,  water  exudes 
at  the  surface  through  pores  such  as  occurs  at  the  tip  of  a  young  grass  or 
clover  leaf.  Water  pores  of  this  sort  are  common.  They  are  regarded  as 
pressure-valves  by  many  botanists.  The  water  that  they  eliminate  is  usu- 
ally filtered  by  the  protoplasm  that  it  passes  through,  which  does  not  allow 
the  passage  of  substances  dissolved  in  the  cell  sap;  but  some  plants  which 
grow  where  they  absorb  very  "hard"  water  pass  lime  salts  out  through 
their  water  pores  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  encrusted  with  lime  as 
the  water  evaporates. 


Part  of  flower  of  Gl 


in.      (u)    nectaries;    (ct)   stamens.     Greatly  magnified. 
Bonnier's  "Les  Nectaires." 


The  safety-valve  elimination  of  water  under  strong  internal  pressure 
and  lessened  normal  evaporation  is  hardly  to  be  called  excretion  or  ac- 
cretion; the  extruded  water  is  neither  by-product  nor  manufactured  out- 
put.   The  elimination  of  lime  appears  to  be  on  the  border  line  of  excretion. 

Nectar  is  not  merely  water;  if  it  were  its  production  would  be  more 
easily  understood.     To  the  taste,  it   is  sweet;   to  the  sense  of  smell,  it   is 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


197 


often  fragrant;  occasionally  it  is  poisonous;  often  it  is  somewhat  colored. 
Commonly  it  is  very  fluid,  but  in  the  nectar-cups  of  poinsettia  it  becomes 
very  gummy.  These  properties  come  from  substances — sugars,  volatile 
oils,  poisonous  organic  compounds — that  were  made  by  and  in  the  plant, 
and  they  differ  in  different  kinds  of  plants.  Whatever  bees  or  ants  may  do 
in  changing  nectar  into  honey,  they  do  not  entirely  change  or  remove 
these  substances,  and  the  rank  brown  honey  of  the  drug  store  is  as  easily 
run  to  its  source  as  the  popular  white  clover  honey,  the  daintily  flavored 
product  of  western  alfalfa,  the  aromatic  acid  honey  of  the  red  raspberry, 
or  the  greenish  product  of  the  sweet  clover  with  its  delicate  vanilla-like 
aroma,  the  cumarin  source  of  which  shows  itself  in  an  occasional  head- 
ache, much  as  the  minor  organic  constituents  of  some  honeys  derived  from 
the  heath  family  now  and  then  prove  seriously  poisonous. 

A  fluid  that  contains  these  organic  substances  necessarily  falls  into  the 
category  of  excretions  or  secretions,  according  as  it  represents  waste  or 
usable  material.  As  either  excretion  or  secretion  it  is  the  product  of  spe- 
cialized organs,  glands,  and  its  appearance  marks  these  glands  as  in  ac- 
tion or  performing  their  function.  Whatever  else  may  be  involved,  this 
depends  upon  the  activity  of  their  protoplasm,  or  is  controlled  by  it. 
When  this  is  killed,  secretion  or  excretion   stops. 


All  parts  of  plants  are  composed  of  individual  cells  flattened  against  one  another.  This  figure 
copied  from  Bonnier's  "Les  Nectaires,"  exhibits  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  stamen  in 
Colinsia  bicolor.      Magnified. 

At  left    (34)    cross  section   of  filament. 


One  result  of  the  protean  character  of  protoplasm  is  its  different  be- 
havior in  different  plants,  different  organs  of  the  same  plant  or  different 
phases  of  the  activity  of  an  individual  cell.  In  either  case  it  can  perform 
its  functions  only  between  certain  limits  of  environment  ,ancl  it  performs 
them  best  somewhere  between  these  limits.  For  each  function  and  each 
condition  there  is  what  physiologists  call  a  minimum — below  which  it  is 
not  carried  on,  a  maximum — above  which  it  has  stopped,  and  an  optimum— 
or  most  favorable.  Just  as  in  the  efficient  working  of  a  human  factory, 
power  and  raw  materials  are  necessary,  and  workmen  must  be  onto  the 
job,  however  favorable  the  other  conditions  of  manufacture  may  be. 


198  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

The  secretion  of  nectar  and  the  storing  of  honey  are  consequently 
not  quite  comparable,  for  the  activities  of  the  honey  plant  are  concerned 
with  the  first,  and  the  activities  of  the  bee  are  concerned  with  the  second, 
though  these  are  largely  influenced  by  what  the  plant  is  or  is  not  doing. 
This  must  be  remembered  always  when  comparing  such  records  of  honey- 
storing  as  Mr.  Strong's  careful  hive-weighings  through  a  generation,  with 
Mr.  Kenoyer's  quantitative  measurements   of   nectar   secretion. 

Nevertheless,  the  most  favoring  conditions  of  nectar  secretion  and 
honey  storing  agree  in  a  number  of  respects.  Vigorous  early  development 
oi  the  plant  puts  it  in  condition  to  do  its  share  of  the  work  best;  what- 
ever conditions  may  prevail  during  what  for  most  plants  is  a  very  short 
part  of  the  growing  season,  when  it  is  in  bloom.  Vigorous  early  develop- 
ment of  the  hive  bears  the  same  kind  of  relation  to  the  final  result.  Early 
honey  must  be  stored  before  the  bees  have  reached  the  full  strength  of 
the  season,  which  may  have  something  to  do  with  the  fact  that  the  bulk 
of  the  harvest  is  gleaned  from  plants  that  flower  later  or  continue  to 
flower  for  a  relatively  long  time. 

Mr.  Strong's  observations  in  Iowa  show  that  over  half  of  the  net  in- 
crease in  honey  storage  in  southern  Iowa  is  made  in  June,  and  over  four- 
fifths  in  June  and  July.  These  are  the  months  when  the  most  productive 
nectar  plants  flower,  and  the  hives  have  reached  the  crest  of  their  specu- 
lative activity  and  are  undergoing  division   by  that   time. 

Physiological  studies  show  that  the  afternoon  temperature  for  nectar 
secretion  is  high — between  90  and  100  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Observation  on 
the  hive  shows  that  its  workers  are  at  their  active  best  in  moderately 
hot  weather.  Mr.  Strong's  twenty-nine-year  average  shows  that  over  half 
cf  the  average  honey  for  the  year  is  stored  when  the  daily  maximum  is 
between  80  and  90  degrees,  and  nine-tenths  of  it  is  stored  when  the  high 
temperature  of  the  day  is  between  80  and  90  degrees.  Nectar  is  most 
abundantly  secreted,  other  conditions  being  equal,  in  warm  days  following 
cool  nights;  bees  do  not  seem  usually  to  work  more  actively  on  such  days, 
though  a  record  day  for  heather  honey  in  England  began  with  a  frost. 
Damp  air  increases  the  quantity  of  nectar,  as  of  the  expulsion  of  water 
through  water  pores;  but  dull,  rainy  weather  lessens  or  stops  the  activity 
of  the  bees. 

Nuptial  nectar  is  secreted  chiefly  before  or  during  the  period  of  sexual 
maturity  of  the  flowers.  Many,  like  cotton,  golden  currant  and  horse- 
chestnut,  change  color  as  this  period  of  sexual  functioning  and  maximum 
nectar  secretion  passes,  and  bees  often  are  quick  to  catch  the  signal.  Ex- 
tra-nuptial nectar  is  secreted  in  greatest  quantity  while  the  near-by  flow- 
ers and  foliage  of  the  plant  are  young. 

Nectar  differs  from  time  to  time  in  quality  as  well  as  in  quantity.  In 
damp  weather  the  increased  quantity  commonly  causes  a  greater  dilution 
of  its  content  of  sugar,  and  the  bees  have  been  shown  to  store  a  greater 
weight  of  honey  several  days  after  a  rainy  day  than  immediately  following 
it.  Though  the  greater  part  of  nectar  is  'water,  its  essential  part,  for  the 
bee-man,  is  sugar,  chiefly  a  mixture  of  two  kinds  of  sugar,  that  possess  a 
different   molecular   arrangement   though    containing   the   same   number   of 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  199 

carbon,  hydrogen  and  starch  atoms,  which  causes  them  to  behave  differ- 
ently when  examined  by  polarized  light,  and  materially  affects  other  of 
their  physical  properties. 

The  flow  of  the  water  of  nectar  seems  to  be  like  that  of  water  through 
water  pores,  an  infiltration  under  pressure  when  root-absorption  is  least 
active  and  leaf  evaporation  checked;  but  thoroughly  and  repeatedly  wash- 
ing the  glands  sometimes  puts  a  stop  to  it.  Beating  rain  does  this  as 
effectively  as  experimental  washing.  Change  of  position  and  closing  in 
dark,  rainy  weather  characterize  some  flowers,  and  keep  the  rain  from 
washing  away  their  accumulated  nectar  and  checking  its  replenishment. 
This  was  Sprengel's  explanation  of  the  fringe  of  hair  on  the  petals  of  the 
wild  geranium.  In  proportion  as  such  nectar  guards  are  effective,  they 
preserve  the  supply  and  contribute  to  its  continuance,  in  proportion  as 
rain  has  opportunity  to  beat  upon  the  nectar  glands  it  wastes  and  may 
even  check  the  production  of  nectar. 

This  stopping  of  nectar  flow  by  washing  away  the  secretion  of  the 
glands,  is  connected  with  the  affinity  for  water  of  sugars.  The  flow  of 
water  appears  to  he  started  by  the  osmotic  force  of  the  disintegrated  part 
of  the  walls  of  the  secreting  cells;  it  is  stopped  when  the  resulting  sub- 
stance has  been  removed  from  the  outer  surface  of  the  secreting  cells. 


Stomata    on    nectariferous    tissue    of   Xanthoceras    sorbifolio.      Greatly    magnified.     Copied 
from    Bonnier's   "Les   Nectaires." 

If  this  were  all,  unless  the  degenerating  cellulose  were  replenished  in 
sufficient  quantity  there  would  hardly  be  such  a  thing  as  honey  production. 
Indeed,  some  extra-nuptial  glands  secrete  a  nectar  containing  so  little 
sugar  that  even  ants  may  not  be  attracted  by  it — as  is  said  to  be  the  case 
with  climbing  smartweeds  cultivated  in  England,  though  it  is  not  usually 
true  of  such  plants  growing  wild  here,  where  they  are  at  home.  Com- 
monly, however,  the  sugar  in  nectar  is  replenished  while  the  secretion  of 
Find  continues. 

The  passage  out  of  sugar  from  a  living  cell  is  very  different  from  the 


200  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

escape  of  water;  the  latter  may  result  from  pressure  on  the  one  hand  or 
osmotic  draft  on  the  other,  because  the  outer  protoplasm  is  permeable  to 
water  but  not  to  sugar.  When  sugar  is  secreted,  this  protoplasmic  layer 
becomes  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  permeable  to  the  escaping  sugar.  This 
is  one  phase  of  the  activity  of  the  living  protoplasm,  for  secretion  is  a  vital 
phenomenon.  What  greater  or  less  permeability  of  protoplasm  actually 
consists  in  is  a  matter  of  theory  rather  than  observation,  but  the  phenom- 
enon is  a  subject  of  observation  and  experiment.  Alternating  warmth  and 
cold,  within  limits,  affect  it;  it  has  its  optimum,  at  a  rather  high  tempera- 
ture, as  well  as  its  minimum  and  maximum.  Through  an  adequately  per- 
meable membrane,  the  flow  of  either  water  or  sugar  may  be  outwards — 
as  it  is  in  normal  secretion,  or  inwards — when  the  secretion  is  absorbed — 
as  experiments  show  to  be  true  under  some  conditions. 

Water  for  nectar  secretion  is  obtained  in  the  first  place  through  the 
roots  of  the  plant  and  travels  from  the  point  of  absorption  to  the  point 
of  secretion.  Sugar  for  nectar  secretion  is  manufactured  within  the  plant, 
very  close  to  the  point  where  it  is  secreted.  It  is  primarily  a  product  of 
tne  carbon-fixing  or  photo-synthetic  activity  that  marks  green  plants  as 
the  food-makers  of  the  world.  Sugars  appear  to  be  among  the  earliest- 
formed  of  such  carbon-containing  or  organic  substances  in  the  plant;  but 
usually  they  are  changed  into  starch  for  storage,  and  this  is  subsequently 
digested  or  transformed  into  a  soluble  sugar  when  the  time  of  its  use 
comes.  The  cells  about  some  nectar  glands  are  storage  repositories  of. 
sugar;  in  other  cases  they  accumulate  a  reserve  of  starch,  as  raw  material, 
before   their   activities   begin    in.  supplying   sugar. 

Evidently,  back  of  the  nectar-production  of  a  given  day  or  season,  very 
closely  related  to  its  own  optimum  conditions  of  temperature  and  humid- 
ity, lies  the  earlier  vegetation  of  the  nectar-producing  plants.  Strength 
and  vigor  of  growth,  a  good  reserve  of  stored  food  from  the  year  before, 
or  favorable  spring  season,  these  would  seem  logically  to  affect  the  activ- 
ity of  the  plant  in  performing  this  as  well  as  others  of  its  functions. 
Renoyer's  conclusions,  from  Strong's  honey-gathering  statistics,  give  sup- 
port to  this  expectation :  "There  is  an  evident  alteration  between  good 
and  poor  years,"  as  in  apple  production;  "a  good  year  has  a  rainfall 
slightly  above  the  average,  preceded  by  an  autumn,  winter  and  spring  with 
more  than  the  average  precipitation,"  affording  adequate  and  lasting  soil 
moisture;  "a  rainy  May  scarcely  fails  to  precede  a  good  honey  season," 
for  the  same  reason,  "a  cold  winter  has  no  detrimental  effect  on  the  yield 
of  the  succeeding  season,  but  a  cold  March  reduces  it,"  through  preventing 
a  fair  early  growth  of  the  honey  plants;  "a  winter  of  heavy  snowfall,  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  is  followed  by  a  larger  honey  yield,"  because 
of  its  contribution  to  the  soil  moisture  and  the  protection  afforded  the 
plants   during  their  hibernation. 

Of  these  conclusions,  most  bear  directly  on  the  conditions  favorable 
for  nectar  secretion  by  the  plants;  some  bear  as  directly  on  those  favor- 
able for  the  wintering  in  prime  condition  of  the  bees.  Honey  production 
rests  upon  both,  not  only  in  June  and  July  and  on  individual  days  in  those 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


201 


months  of  greatest  honey  storage,  but  on  preceding  days  and  months  of 
preparation.  Perhaps  the  suggestion  may  be  made,  even  that  it  goes  much 
further  back,  through  long  centuries  of  selective  evolution,  side  by  side,  of 
nectar-yielding  plants  and  honey-storing  insects,  gradually  coming  into 
mutually  helpful  harmony. — William  Trelease,  University  of  Illinois. 
American  Bee  Journal,  January,  1920. 


Fig.    110.     Filaree  or  pin  clover. 


202  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

PIGEON  BERRY,  see  Buckthorn. 
PIGEON  CHERRY,  see  Wild  Cherry. 

PIN   CLOVER   or  FILAREE   (Erodium  cicutarium). 

The  pin  clover,  or  alfilaria,  or  filaree,  is  widely  distributed  in  the  Old 
World,  and  in  this  country  has  been  naturalized  from  Europe.  It  is  espe- 
cially well  known  on  the  Pacific  Coast  from  British  Columbia  to  southern 
California.  There  it  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  wild  pasture 
plants. 

It  is  also  called  pin  grass  and  heron's  bill.  It  has  a  long  period  of 
bloom,  beginning  in  February  or  March  in  California,  and  in  some  places 
continuing  through  the  summer.  It  produces  an  abundance  of  pollen  and 
considerable  honey  of  good  quality.  In  Gray's  botany  it  is  listed  as 
"storksbill,"  and  is  mentioned  as  scarce  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 
It  is  recorded  as  occurring  in  Alabama,  where  it  apparently  was  carrier 
with  railroad  ballast.  June  is  given  as  the  blooming  period  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mobile. 

It  is  also  known  in  several  places  in  Connecticut,  where  it  is  said  to 
bloom  in  May  and  June.  Professor  Pammel  states  that  it  is  abundant  in 
the  dry  soils  in  the  Salt  Lake  basin  and  from  Colorado  to  Texas.  The 
seeds  cling  to  the  wool  of  sheep  and  this  aids  in  its  wide  distribution. 

Figure  110  shows  the  plant  with  blossom  and  seed  pod.  It  is  from  the 
peculiar  shape  of  the  latter  that  it  gets  the  name  of  "storksbill"  and 
"heron's  bill." 

PINE  (Pinus). 

Occasionally  honeydew  is  reported  from  the  pine  trees.  The  following 
references  are  typical  of  those  to  be  found  in  current  literature: 

"We  are  having  a  real  flow  of  water-white  honeydew  from  the 
pine  here  in  Polk  County.  It  has  been  on  now  for  two  weeks.  Bees 
in  general  are  in  bad  condition." — Luther  Presswood,  Reliance,  Tenn., 
Jan.  18,  1907.     American   Bee  Journal,  page  98,  1907. 

"Large  quantities  of  honey  are  often  secured  from  pine  woods  in 
certain  parts  of  Germany.  The  honey  is  nearly  black  in  color,  still 
it  finds  many  admirers,  and  must,  therefore,  be  of  better  quality  than 
the  honeydew  gathered  here  at  times.  The  Emmendingen  Beekeep- 
ers' Society  furnishes  all  the  honey  for  the  Grand  Duke's  table  (in 
Karlsruhe),  and  it  is  specified  that  the  honey  must  be  this  black  honey 
of  the  pine  woods." — Bztg.  for  Schlesw. — Holstein.  American  Bee  Jour- 
nal, page  616,  1906. 

Similar  honeydew  is  harvested  in  Switzerland  and  appears  to  be  also 
much  prized  by  the  consumers. 

PLUM   (Prunus). 

Plums,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  are  important  sources  of  nectar  over 
most  of  the  United  States.  There  are  twenty  or  more  species  which  are 
native  to  North  America  and  which  are  generally  known  as  wild  plums. 
The  blooming  period  comes  early  and  with  other  tree  fruits  they  are  of 
great  value  as  the  source  of  nectar  and  pollen  at  a  season  when  the  colo- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


203 


nies  most  need  stimulation.  The  nectar  yield  is  sufficiently  abundant  for 
the  bees  to  store  surplus  where  colonies  are  strong  and  weather  condi- 
tions favorable.  In  Sacramento  County,  California,  surplus  is  sometimes 
reported  from  prunes.  There  are  probably  few  places  where  bees  are  kept 
in  America  where  plums  of  some  variety  are  not  present. 


Fig.   111.     Plum  blossoms. 

POINSETTIA  (Euphorbia  pulcherrima).  _The  poinsettia  is  a  well-known 
ornamental  plant.  It  is  a  shrub,  native  to  tropical  America,  grown  to  a 
considerable  extent  for  ornamental  purposes  in  California.  The  blos- 
soms are  small  and  inconspicuous,  but  there  is  a  striking  cluster  of  bril- 
liant red  leaves,  surrounding  the  flowers,  which  give  an  impression  of 
flowers. 

The  nectaries  are  very  conspicuous  cups  at  the  side  of  the  blossoms. 
Nectar  is  secreted  in  abundance,  and  if  the  plant  was  sufficiently  common 
it  would  be  an  important  source.     The  nectar  gathers  in  large  drops. 

POISON    IVY,  see   Laurel;    also   Sumac. 
POISON   OAK.,  see   Sumac. 


POISONOUS  HONEY. 

Much  has  been  written  in  regard  to  poisonous  honey.    Well  authenti 


204  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

cated  cases  of  serious  poisoning  from  honey  are  rare,  so  rare,  indeed, 
that  many  persons  doubt  whether  such  cases  occur.  There  are  persons 
with  a  peculiar  susceptibility  to  honey  from  any  source.  To  such,  honey 
may  seem  to  be  poisonous,  which  can  be  eaten  by  others  without  any  ill 
effect.  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook,  writing  in  the  American  Bee  Journal  (October 
12,  1905,  page  711),  mentioned  having  on  several  occasions  received  sam- 
ples of  so-called  poisonous  honey,  which  he  ate  without  inconvenience. 

In  December,  1880,  issue  of  American  Bee  Journal,  page  552,  a  case  is 
mentioned  where  a  native  of  New  Zealand  died  from  eating  honey  gath- 
ered from  the  wharangi  bush  (Melicope  ternata),  which  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  two  poisonous  plants  to  be  found  in  New  Zealand.  The  symp- 
toms are  reported  similar  to  strychnine  poisoning.  A  letter  from  New 
Zealand  published  in  Gleanings,  page  435,  1908,  reads  as  follows: 

"Some  one,  usually  a  native,  gets  poisoned  every  year  about  here 
through  eating  bush  honey,  usually  not  capped,  and  puka-puka  usually 
gets  the  blame.  Mr.  Hopkins  had  a  look  at  a  case  of  Moaris  honey 
poisoning  last  year,  and  I  think  puka-puka  got  the  blame;  but  the 
fact  is  significant,  nevertheless,  that  it  is  the  Maoris  only,  or  princi- 
pally they,  that  get  poisoned,  and  in  that  case  the  honey  eaten  is 
never  capped." — Stephen  Anthony,  Wastete,  New  Zealand. 

The  mountain  laurel  (Kalmia  latifolia)  is  the  plant  most  frequently 
reported  as  yielding  poisonous  honey.  This  shrub  is  common  to  the  moun- 
tain regions  of  the  Eastern  States,  and  it  would  seem  that  cases  of  poison- 
ing would  be  reported  much  more  frequently  if  there  was  good  reason  to 
suspect  the  honey  from  this  source.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  dis- 
agreeable odors  disappear  from  honey  that  is  well  ripened.  In  this  con- 
nection a  writer  in  American  Bee  Journal,  page  664,  1884,  suggests  that 
there  is  no  evidence  of  poisoning  from  well  ripened  honey.  He  further 
states  that  uncapped  honey  from  the  yellow  jasmine  is  actually  poisonous 
and  has  produced  death,  but  that  after  it  is  capped  there  is  no  honey  more 
wholesome.  It  should  be  noted  that  special  emphasis  was  placed  on  the 
fact  that  the  cases  of  poisoning  in  New  Zealand  were  from  eating  un- 
capped honey. 

Pammel  states  (Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants)  that  honey  obtained 
from  Euphorbia  marginata,  the  well-known  snow-on-the-mountain,  is 
poisonous  and  unfit  for  use.  He  also  states  that  the  Indians  of  Brazil 
use  honey  gathered  by  wasps  from  flowers  of  Serjonia  lethalis  for 
poisoning  their  arrows,  and  also  as  a  fish  poison.  It  contains  a  narcotic 
poison  which  causes  death. 

The  following  resume  of  the  subject  is  copied  entire  from  Pammel: 

"Prof.  Lyman  F.  Kebler,  who  has  made  a  somewhat  extended  in- 
vestigation with  poisonous  honey  has  given  an  excellent  bibliography 
with  reference  to  the  early  literature  on  the  subject.  It  has  been 
known  for  centuries  that  the  honey  collected  from  Ericaceae  acts  as 
a  narcotic  irritant,  producing  giddiness,  vomiting  and  purging.  Poison- 
ous honey  was  described  by  Xenophon.  He  gives  a  fairly  accurate  de- 
scription of  how  the  soldiers  of  his  army  acted  that  ate  honey  that 
was  poisoned.  He  states  that  they  lost  their  senses,  vomited  and  were 
affected   with   purging,   and   those   who   had   eaten    but   little   were    in- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  205 

toxicated,  but  when  they  had  eaten  much  they  were  like  mad  men. 
Strabo  and  Pliny  spoke  of  poisonous  honey,  the  latter  writer,  an 
early  naturalist  noted  for  his  accurate  observations,  records  poison- 
ous honey,  which  he  called  "aegolethron"  (goat's  death),  which  bees 
collected  at  Heraclea.  He  gives  a  description  of  the  honey,  which  is 
said  to  have  had  a  peculiar  smell  and  produced  sneezing.  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  this  honey  came  from  a  species  of  Rhododen- 
dron, the  R.  pontica.  This  and  allied  species  are  the  chief  source  of 
poisonous  honey  in  Asia  and  Asia  Minor,  but  it  may  be  said  in  this 
connection  that  honey  collected  from  the  heather  in  Scotland  is  not 
poisonous. 

"Barton,  an  early  American  botanist,  reported  poisonous  honey 
in  New  Jersey  as  early  as  1794.  Subsequently  Coleman  reported  a 
large  number  of  cases  in  1852,  and  Gammer,  in  Gleanings  in  Bee  Cul- 
ture, and  several  writers  in  the  American  Bee  Journal,  reported 
poisonous  honey.  Other  writers,  like  Chestnut  and  Crawford,  have 
reported  on  the  occurrence  of  poisonous  honey  in  the  United  States, 
and  Kebler  reports  no  less  than  eight  cases  for  New  Jersey  in  1896,  and 
believes  that  it  is  much  more  common  than  the  records  seem  to  indi- 
cate. Kebler  was  fortunate  enough  to  investigate  some  of  the  poison- 
ous honey  following  a  case  of  poisoning  in  New  Jersey.  He  exam- 
ined a  part  of  the  comb  of  the  dark  honey  which  had  a  light  brown 
color  and  a  nauseating  odor,  pungent  taste,  caused  a  burning  sensa- 
tion in  the  back  of  the  mouth  similar  to  that  of  aconite.  Persons  who 
partook  of  a  small  amount  of  this  honey  began  to  cough  immediately. 
He  also  made  a  chemical  analysis  of  the  non-suspicious  honey,  di- 
gesting with  alcohol,  then  evaporated,  the  residue  was  again  treated 
to  alcohol  and  evaporated  and  administered  to  two  cats.  One  received 
a  small  dose  and  the  other  a  large  one.  The  results  from  the  cats 
were  so  interesting  that  I  quote  from  Professor  Kebler  : 

"'The  small  dose  produced  partial  exhaustion,  relaxation  of  the 
Voluntary  muscles  and  general  depression.  The  large  dose  in  a  short 
time  produced  restlessness,  vomiting,  purging,  prostration  and  almost 
complete  loss  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  showing  that  the  honey  con- 
tained a  prompt  and  potent  poison.  The  animal  could  scarcely  be  in- 
duced to  move,  and  when  motion  was  attempted,  first  the  fore-limbs 
would  fail,  and  then  the  back-limbs  would  give  way.  First  one  por- 
tion of  the  body  would  sway  in  one  direction,  then  the  other  portion  in 
another  .reminding  one  of  a  highly  intoxicated  person.  Had  the  entire 
dose  been  retained,  death  undoubtedly  would  have  followed.  As  it  was, 
the  cat  had  regained  her  normal  condition  only  at  the  end  of  twenty- 
four  hours.'  " 

Along  with  this  we  may  append  the  symptoms  as  reported  by  the  phy- 
sician who  attended  the  persons  who  were  poisoned: 

"Mr.  and  Mrs.  Chambers  took  but  a  small  quantity,  yet  each  no- 
ticed a  peculiar,  pungent,  burning  taste  in  the  comb  as  soon  as  it  had 
passed  their  lips.  In  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  afterwards  Mrs.  C 
was  taken  with  nausea,  abdominal  pain  and  vomiting,  soon  followed  by 
loss  of  consciousness,  coldness  of  extremities,  feebly  acting  heart,  and 
complete  collapse.  While  ministering  to  her,  Mr.  Chambers,  who  had 
also  experienced  the  initiatory  symptoms  of  pain  and  nausea,  suddenly 
exclaimed,  'I  cannot  see,'  and  soon  sank  in  a  state  of  syncope  to  the 
floor.  In  each  case  the  symptoms  were  similar.  Retching,  vomiting, 
purging,  acute  gastric  and  abdominal  pain,  and  continued  crumps  for 
some  hours,  with  surface  coldness,  and  deadly  pallor,  and  the  general 
symptoms  of  collapse. 

"Kebler  was,  however,  unable  to  definitely  locate  the  andromedo- 
toxin  found  by  Plugge.    This  author  receded  it  for  a  large  number  of 


206  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

plants  as  follows  Andromeda  japonica,  A.  polifolia,  A.  Catesbaei,  A. 
calyculata,  Kalmia  lalifolia,  Monotropa  uniflora,  Pieris  formosa,  P. 
ovalifolia,  Rhododendron  grande,  R.  barbatum,  and  R.  fulgens.  It  has 
been  recorded  for  additional  plants  by  Greshoff,  who  mentions  the  fol- 
lowing plants  which  produce  poisonous  honey:  Nerium  Oleander,  Cy- 
tisus  Laburnum,  Pieris  ovalifolia,  Callotropis  procera,  Daphne,  Pontica, 
Buxus  balearica,  Clerodendron  serratum,  C.  Bhramaramari,  Sapindus 
emarginatus.  (It  is  said  that  thousands  of  bees  are  killed  by  this 
honey.)  Centaurea  scabiosa,  Carduus  natans,  Scabiosa  succisa,  A 
South  African  species  of  Euphorbia  also  produces  a  poisonous  honey 
which  was  not  noted  by  Greshoff. 

POISONWOOD  (Metopium  metopium). 

The  poisonwood  is  a  tree  found  in  southern  Florida,  the  West  Indies 
and  Central  America.  It  is  known  by  a  variety  of  names,  bum-wood,  hog- 
gum,  coral  sumac  or  doctor-gum.  Its  sap  is  dangerously  poisonous,  and 
some  persons  are  affected  by  a  near  approach  to  the  tree.  The  tree  reaches 
a  height  of  more  than  forty  feet  and  in  south  Florida  it  is  the  source  of 
large  quantities  of  surplus  honey  of  good  quality.  The  honey  is  usually 
blended  with  that  of  other  sources  blooming  during  the  same  period. 

The  tree  has  a  thin  bark  which  splits  into  large  scales  as  it  grows  older, 
These  are  of  a  reddish  brown  color,  brighter  on  the  inside.  It  is  sometimes 
confused  with  manchineel  and  is  often  classified  as  a  Rhus. 

POLLEN. 

Pollen  represents  the  male  element  of  reproduction  in  seed  plants. 
The  flowering  plants  are  normally  reproduced  by  seed.  Fertilization  is 
brought  about  by  the  intervention  of  the  grains  of  pollen  which  are  borne 
by  the  stamens  or  male  organs.  In  the  corn  plant  the  stamens  are  pro- 
duced in  the  tassels  where  pollen  is  developed  in  great  abundance.  The 
pistils,  or  female  organs,  are  represented  by  the  silks  attached  to  the  ear. 
There  is  a  separate  silk  attached  to  each  kernel,  and  each  must  be  sep- 
arately fertilized.  In  many  plants  both  stamens  and  pistils  occur  in  the 
same  blossom,  as  is  the  case  with  apples,  pears,  etc.  In  some  cases  the 
stamens  or  male  organs  are  borne  on  a  separate  plant  or  tree,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  persimmon.  Cucumbers  have  the  separate  organs  in  separate 
flowers.  In  order  to  insure  fertilization  it  is  necessary  that  the  pollen 
grains  be  carried  from  the  stamens  to  the  pistils.  In  the  grasses  and  sim- 
ilar plants  this  is  usually  acomplished  by  the  wind,  while  in  most  fruits, 
insects  are  the  principal  agents. 

Pollen  grains  are  very  minute  and  are  produced  in  small  sacs  in  the 
tip  of  the  stamen,  commonly  called  anther.  When  ripe,  the  breaking  of  the 
sac  sets  the  grains  free  in  great  abundance.  A  single  grain  is  sufficient 
to  fertilize  an  ovule  and  produce  a  seed;  yet,  because  of  the  distance  be- 
tween the  stamens  and  pistils,  large  quantities  of  the  pollen  or  flower  dust 
are  necessary  to  insure  pollination.  Ragweed  and  corn  produce  pollen  in 
such  abundance  that  one  brushing  by  the  plants  is  dusted  so  freely  as  to 
appear  to  be  covered  with  flour. 

Pollen  is  of  special  importance  to  the  beekeeper,  since  it  serves  as  food 
for  young  bees.    It  is  the  sole  source  of  nitrogenous  food  for  the  growing 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


207 


larvae,  and  is  stored  in  large  quantity  in  the  open  cells  of  the  brood  combs. 
Without  an  abundance  of  pollen  available  for  food  for  the  developing 
brood,  the  colony  cannot  prosper.  Pollen  is  second  only  in  importance  to 
surplus  honey  to  the  beekeeper,  and  an  abundant  supply  of  plants  which 
yield  pollen  during  the  brood-rearing  season  is  very  desirable. 

POLLINATION. 

Pollination  is  the  fertilization  of  the  blossom  of  a  plant,  resulting  in 
the  development  of  seed.  As  ordinarily  used  among  the  beekeepers,  pol- 
lination refers  to  the  transfer  of  the  pollen  grains  from  the  stamens  of 
one  plant  to  the  pistils  of  another.  Since  many  plants  are  self-sterile,  it 
is  necessary  that  pollen  from  other  plants  and  sometimes  from  other  va- 
rieties be  brought  to  them  to  insure  fruitage.  As  already  stated  under 
"Pollen,"  the  honeybee  is  the  principal  agent  in  the  pollination  of  many 
of  the  edible  fruits. 

So  important  is  the  bee  regarded  by  horticulturists  that  cucumber 
growers  contract  for  colonies  of  bees  to  be  placed  in  their  greenhouses, 
cherry  growers  often  lease  apiaries  to  be  moved  to  their  orchards  at  the 
beginning  of  the  blooming  period,  and  apple  orchardists  contract  with  bee- 
keepers to  furnish  sufficient  bees  to  insure  fertilization  of  their  orchards. 

Darwin  was  among  the  first  to  realize  the  importance  of  cross  pollina- 
tion. He  showed  that  continued  self-fertilization  resulted  in  inferior  fruit, 
while  cross  fertilization  increased  the  vigor  of  the  offspring.  Beach  has 
shown  that  many  varieties  of  grapes  are  self-sterile,  and  at  the  California 


Fig.  112.     The  California  poppy  is  a  gorgeous  flower. 


14 


208  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

experiment  station  it  was  shown  that  "bees  are  a  necessary  aid  in  pollina- 
tion with  the  French  and  Imperial  varieties  of  prunes."  It  was  proven  that 
practically  no  fruit  was  produced  when  all  pollen-carrying  insects  were 
kept  from  visiting  the  blossoms.  (Bulletin  291,  California  Experiment  Sta- 
tion). 

It  has  been  shown  by  numerous  experiments  that  many  varieties  of 
fruits,  especially  of  apples  and  pears,  are  likely  to  be  unfruitful  if  deprived 
of  the  services  of  the  honeybee  as  pollen  carriers. 

POPLAR,  see   Tulip-Poplar,  also  Aspen. 

POPPY   (Papaver). 

The  garden  poppy  (Papaver  somniferum)  is  a  native  of  Asia,  but  is  widely 
cultivated  in  many  countries,  including  our  own.  It  is  the  source  of  opium 
and  morphine,  drugs  widely  used  in  the  practice  of  medicine.  The  bright- 
colored  flowers  are  very  attractive  to  the  bees,  which  seek  them  in  larg? 
numbers  and  fairly  revel  in  the  abundant  pollen  masses.  The  pollen  se- 
cured from  poppy  blossoms  is  very  dark.  It  is  probable  that  the  plant 
furnishes  some  nectar,  also,  and  there  are  numerous  reports  to  the  effect 
that  the  bees  show  evidence  of  a  narcotic  when  working  on  this  plant. 

The  California  poppy  (Eschscholtzia  californica  (Fig.  112)  is  a  common 
and  widely  diffused  plant  in  California.  It  is  a  gorgeous  plant  of  variable 
habit,  especially  abundant  in  spring,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  State  may  be 
found  in  flower  at  almost  any  season.  Richter  lists  it  as  the  source  of  some 
honey  and  of  large  amounts  of  orange-colored  pollen. 

The  prickly  poppy  (Argemone),  often  called  poppy  thistle,  is  widely 
distributed,  especially  in  the  southwest.  It  is  the  source  of  large  quanti- 
ties of  pollen. 

POPPY  THISTLE,  see  Poppy. 
POSSUM   HAW,  see   Holly. 
POSSUM-WOOD,  see   Persimmon. 

PRAIRIE  CLOVER  (Petalostemon). 

There  are  several  species  of  prairie  clover  native  to  the  western 
prairies  from  Indiana  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  south  to  Texas. 
There  are  frequent  reports  to  the  effect  that  they  are  valuable  honey 
plants,  though  no  longer  sufficiently  plentiful  to  be  important  except  in  a 
few  localities. 

PRICKLY  ASH    (Xanthoxylum  Clava-Herculis).     TOOTHACHE-TREE. 

The  prickly  ash  or  toothache-tree  is  found  from  North  Carolina  to 
Florida  and  west  to  Texas.  It  is  a  small  tree  with  the  bark  armed  with 
short,  warty  thorns,  while  the  branches  have  longer  ones. 

In  east  Texas  it  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  source  of  honey.  The 
honey  is  reported  as  pungent  in  taste,  sharp  and  peppery  and  light  in 
color.  The  blossoms  yield  freely,  and,  where  sufficiently  abundant,  may  be 
expected  to  yield  surplus.  At  Palestine,  Texas,  surplus  is  reported  from 
prickly  ash.     (See  also  Colima). 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


209 


PRICKLY  PEAR  or  INDIAN  FIG  (Opuntia). 

Plants  of  the  cactus  family  are  widely  scattered  in  the  arid  regions 
from  Dakota  to  Washington  and  south  to  Texas  and  California.  Figs. 
114  and  115.)  Of  the  prickly  pears  (Opuntia)  there  are  about  150  species, 
mostly  found  in  the  warmer  sections  of  North  America  and  southward.  A 
few  are  to  be  found  in  sandy  soils  further  east,  ranging  from  Ontario  and 
Massachusetts  south  to  Florida.  They  are  also  sometimes  grown  as  or- 
namentals. The  blossom  of  the  prickly  pear  is  of  pale  yellow  color  and 
very  attractive.     (Fig.   113.)   It   is   reported   as   a   source   of   nectar   in   both 


Fig.   113.      Blossom   of  the   cactus   or  prickly   pear. 

Texas  and  California.  Opuntia  engelmanni  is  reported  by  Scholl  m 
"Honey  Plants  of  Texas,"  as  "of  much  importance  to  the  beekeeper,  espe- 
cially during  a  season  of  partial  drought.  Both  an  abundance  of  pollen 
and  honey  was  obtained,  the  honey  being  light  amber  in  color,  of  heavy 
body  but  'stringy,'  so  much  so  that  it  fairly  draws  out  into  strings  when 
very  thick.     The  flavor  is  very  rank." 

In  some  parts  of  the  Southwest  it  is  valued  more  for  pollen  than  for 
nectar.  Beginning  in  July,  it  blooms  for  four  to  six  weeks.  E.  G.  Le- 
Stourgeon  reports  that  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Antonio,  Texas,  it  yields  sur- 
plus honey  about  one  year  in  four,  but  that  the  flow  is  usually  short,  seldom 
more  than  four  or  five  days.  A  peculiarity  of  this  honey  is  that  of  granu- 
lating in  large  crystals  in  clear  liquid.  It  is  often  spoken  of  as  "buttermilk 
honey,"   because    of    this     peculiarity.      LeStourgeon    secured    an    average 


210 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


yield  of  87  pounds  per  colony  of  cactus  honey  in  Atascosta  County.  Such 
yields  from  this  source  are  rare.  Cactus  grows  in  great  abundance  over 
large  areas  of  Texas  and  is  probably  of  more  importance  to  beekeepers  in 
that  State  than  in  any  other. 


Fig.   114.     In  parts  of  Texas  the  land  is  covered  with  cactus  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see. 
PRICKLY   POPPY,   see   Poppy. 

PRINCE  EDWARD   ISLAND— Honey  Sources  of. 

Alsike  and  white  clover  are   the  principal  honey  plants   of  the   Island, 
with  Tilia  europea  also  important  at  Charlottetown. — F.  W.  L.  Sladen. 


PROPOLIS. 

Propolis  is  a  resinous  gum  gathered  by  the  bees  from  buds  of  trees,  and 
used  to  close  crevices  about  the  hive.  It  becomes  brittle  and  hard  in  cold 
weather,  but  when  warm  is  sticky  and  very  tenacious.  The  beekeeper 
finds  it  quite  a  problem  to  keep  his  hands  free  from  propolis  when  manipu- 
lating the  hives  in  mid-summer.  Some  races  of  bees  deposit  propolis  much 
more  freely  than  others,  the  Caucasians  being  especially  inclined  to  gather 
a  great  surplus  of  the  cement  and  place  it  in  lumps  about  the  hive.  If,  per- 
chance, a  mouse,  beetle  or  other  object  enters  the  hive  which  the  bees  are 
unable  to  remove,  they  frequently  coat  it  freely  with  propolis,  and  there  it 
remains. 

Cracks  seem  obnoxious  to  the  bees,  and  the  small  spaces  between  the 
frames  are  quite  likely  to  be  filled  with  the  cement.    In  the  production  of 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


211 


comb  honey,  the  tendency  of  the  bees  to  fill  every  crevice  with  it  leads  to 
much  labor  on  the  part  of  the  beekeeper  in  cleaning  his  finished  sections 
for  market.  This  is  especially  true  of  honey  left  on  the  hive  till  late  in 
the  season,  as  propolis  is  gathered  in  quantity  in  late  fall  in  anticipation  of 
cold  weather. 

Cottonwood  is  thought  to  be  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  propolis 
wherever  that  well-known  tree  is  found. 

Bees  gather  much  material  from  a  great  variety  of  sources.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  fresh  wax  gathered  from  plants  and  trees,  they  are  often  at- 
tracted by  fresh  varnish  or  other  substances  from  which  they  can  get 
sticky  material  to  serve  as  glue. 


Fig.   115.      A  single  plant  of  prickly  pear   near   Brownsville,   Te 
PRUNE,  see   Plum. 


PUMPKIN    (Cucurbita   pepo). 

The  pumpkin   is  a  well-known   gourd-like   fruit,  usually  of  deep  yelloi 


212  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

color,  that  is  widely  cultivated  as  a  food  for  stock  and  for  pie.  There  are 
numerous  varieties  of  various  sizes  and  colors.  The  blossoms  are  large  and 
showy  and  very  attractive  to  the  bees.  The  plants  yield  an  abundance  of 
pollen  as  well  as  nectar.  The  honey  is  amber  and  not  of  high  quality,  and 
granulates   readily. 

Where  pumpkins  are  grown  on  a  large  scale  for  stock  feed  or  for  can- 
ning factories,  they  are  a  valuable  source  of  bee  pasture. 

PURPLE  LOOSESTRIFE  (Lythrum). 

There  are  two  species  of  lythrum  frequently  reported  as  noney  plants. 
The  European  species,  Lythrum  Salicaria,  the  spiked  loosestrife,  has  be- 
come naturalized  in  wet  places  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Delaware.  According 
to  H.  D.  House,  State  Botanist  of  New  York,  it  is  common  in  and  around 
the  inlets  and  backwaters  of  the  Hudson  River  all  up  and  down  that 
stream.  It  is  also  common  up  the  Mohawk  Valley,  at  Oneida  Lake  and 
along  the  railroads  westward  across  the  State  to  Lake  Erie.  It  is  a  tall 
plant  of  vigorous  growth,  but  as  it  confines  itself  largely  to  wet  places,  it 
is  not  likely  to  be  any  more  of  a  nuisance  than  the  usual  coarse  weeds 
growing  in  such  situations.  The  bees  work  this  plant  freely  and  occasional 
reports  of  honey  from  this  source  are  received  from  New  York  State.  The 
honey  is  very  dark  and  of  strong  flavor,  having  a  slight  tobacco-like  taste 
as  it  gets  older. 

Lythrum  alatum,  a  native  species,  is  found  from  Ontario  and  Minnesota 
south  to  Georgia,  Florida  and  Texas.  A  report  from  Oklahoma  is  to  the 
effect  that  it  blooms  with  sweet  clover,  lasting  till  frost.  The  bees  work 
upon  it  from  daylight  till  dark  in  either  wet  or  dry  weather.  Similar  re- 
ports come  from  Texas.     It  is  found  on  low  lands  in  the  southwest. 

It  is  also  reported  by  beekeepers  from  New  Orleans  as  attractive  to 
bees  in  Louisiana. 


QUEBEC — Honey   Sources   of. 

In  Quebec  alsike  and  white  clover  furnish  the  principal  surplus  honey. 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  province  buckwheat,  basswood  and  sweet 
clover  are  also  important.  Fireweed,  blueberry,  goldenrod  and  aster  are 
the  source  of  surplus  honey  over  much  of  the  province  and  willows  and 
maples  are  valuable  for  spring  brood  rearing. — F.  W.  L.Sladen. 

QUERCUS,  see  Oak. 
QUININE   Tree,  see   Hop-Tree. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


213 


R 


RABBIT   BRUSH    (Chrysothamnus   nauseosus   hypolluca). 

Richter  lists  rabbit  brush  as  yielding  nectar  in  the  vicinity  of  Inde- 
pendence, California,  from  September  till  November.  He  states  that  the 
bees  work  vigorously  on  it,  but  that  the  honey  is  dark,  of  poor  flavor  and 
disagreeable  odor,  and  that  when  the  bees  are  evaporating  it  it  can  be 
smelled  all  over  the  place. 

There  are  seventeen  different  varieties  of  rabbit  brush  in  the  south- 
western  desert   from   New   Mexico   to   California   and   north    to    Utah    and 


Fig.  116.     Bit 


of  the  tall  ragweed. 


214  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

Colorado.  They  are  described  as  coarse  plants,  usually  shrubby  and  grow- 
ing to  a  height  of  as  much  as  six  feet.  They  have  small  heads  of  yellow 
flowers.  The  Navaho  Indians  use  the  heads  of  the  various  species  to  dye 
wool  yellow. — (Flora  of  New  Mexico.) 

RADISH  or  JOINTED  CHARLOCK  (Raphanus  Raphanistrum). 

The  wild  radish  or  jointed  charlock  is  a  troublesome  weed  in  the  fields 
of  eastern  Canada  and  United  States  from  New  England  to  Pennsylvania. 
Like  many  other  introduced  plants,  it  has  been  widely  scattered  with  grain 
seeds.  It  has  been  introduced  into  northwestern  Iowa  with  oats,  where  it 
is  spreading  in  fields  and  waste  places. 

Sladen  lists  it  as  one  of  the  important  sources  of  nectar  in  Nova 
Scotia. 

RAGGED  LADY,  see  Red  Gaura. 
RAGGED  SAILOR,  see  Centaurea. 

RAGWEED   (Ambrosia  trifida). 

Figure  116  shows  the  blossom  and  leaf  of  the  great  ragweed,  often 
called  horseweed.  This  is  a  very  common  roadside  weed,  growing  to  a 
height  of  10  or  12  feet.  It  is  common  in  Quebec  and  Ontario,  west  to  Mani- 
toba. In  the  United  States  it  occurs  from  New  England  west  to  Colorado 
and  south  to  the  Gulf.  It  is  also  found  in  Cuba  and  Mexico.  It  is  espe- 
cially common  in  the  rich  lands  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  from  Minnesota 
to  Texas. 

The  ragweed  does  not  produce  nectar,  but  furnishes  large  quantities 
of  pollen  in  late  summer  and  fall. 

RAPE   (Brassica   napus). 

Rape  is  a  foreign  plant  related  to  the  cabbage,  which  has  been  intro- 
duced from  Europe.  In  the  United  States  it  is  chiefly  grown  as  a  catch 
crop  or  forage  for  hogs  and  sheep  and  sometimes  as  a  cover  crop. 

In  Europe  it  is  highly  regarded  as  a  honey  plant,  as  the  following  let- 
ter from  Baron  Von  Berlepsch,  which  appeared  in  American  Bee  Journal 
in  April,  1874,  will  show  : 

"During  the  years  between  1841  and  1858,  that  I  was  a  practical 
agriculturist,  I  cultivated  rape,  to  a  large  extent,  and  can  in  conse- 
quence thereof,  and  from  knowledge  otherwise  gained,  testify  most 
assuredly,  that  in  all  Germany  there  is  no  plant  yielding  more  honey 
than  rape.  I  know  of  instances,  occurring  in  my  own  experience,  where 
a  very  populous  colony  of  bees,  during  time  when  rape  was  in  blossom, 
gained  a  weight  of  20  pounds  and  over  in  one  day. 

"On  the  10th  of  May,  1846,  there  was  near  me  a  65-acre  field  in  blos- 
som. The  weather  was  excellent,  and  my  strongest  colony,  which  I 
placed  on  a  platform  scale,  gained  that  day  more  than  21  pounds  in 
weight.  I  know  of  only  one  other  plant  that  can  be  compared  with 
rape  as  a  honey-yielding  plant,  and  that  is  esparet  (Sainfoin). 

A  Wisconsin  beekeeper,  writing  in  American  Bee  Journal  the  same 
year  stated  that  rape  in  Wisconsin  is  scarcely  second  to  linden.     He  de- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


215 


scribed  the  honey  as  of  golden  color  and  good  flavor.  He  further  cited  the 
fact  that  rape  blooms  about  the  middle  of  August,  when  there  is  little  else, 
as  a  great  advantage  in  cultivating  it  for  its  honey. 

The  few  references  to  it  in  our  literature  indicate  that  it  may  be  of 
more  value  to  the  beekeeper  than  is  generally  recognized. 

RAPHANUS,  see  Radish. 

RASPBERRY  (Rubus).     Also  called  THIMBLEBERRY. 

The  wild  raspberry  (Rubus  occidentalis)  is  a  very  common  plant  in 
the  woods  of  the  Northeastern  States.  Mohr  gives  its  natural  range  as 
New  England  to  Quebec  and  Ontario,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Colorado  and 
Oregon,  south  to  Ohio  and  West  Virginia,  and  along  the  mountains  to 
Georgia. 


Wild   raspberry   grows   in   great  abundance   in   Ontario 


other   northern    regioi 


216  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

There  are  several  species  of  wild  raspberries,  and  probably  all  are  good 
honey  producers.  Raspberry  honey  is  produced  extensively  in  northern 
Michigan,  where  the  plant  is  abundant  on  cut-over  lands,  it  blooms  fol- 
lowing the  tree  fruits  and  is  usually  ahead  of  the  white  clover.  In  locali- 
ties where  it  is  plentiful  it  is  a  most  valuable  honey  plant  and  phenomenal 
yields  have  sometimes  been  reported  from  this  source.  A  good  raspberry 
location  is  very  desirable.  Beekeepers  who  chance  to  be  near  large  planta- 
tions of  raspberries  cultivated  for  market  are  equally  fortunate.  The 
honey  is  white  and  of  a  superior  quality.  Figure  117  shows  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  wild  raspberry  as  it  is  found  in  many  localities  in  Ontario 

RATTAN  VINE  (Berchemia  scandens). 

Rattan  vine,  or  supple-jack,  is  a  common  climbing  vine  in  low  thickets 
throughout  the  Southern  States  from  Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Missouri, 
south  to  Florida  and  eastern  Texas.  The  flowers  are  greenish  yellow,  usu- 
ally appearing  in  June.  The  plant  is  slender  and  of  vigorous  growth,  fre- 
quently climbing  high  trees. 

In  east  Texas  it  is  one  of  the  important  sources  of  surplus  honey. 
There  the  plant  is  abundant  along  the  streams,  and  is  reported  as  yielding 
honey  for  a  long  period.  The  author  has  found  rattan  vine  highly  re- 
garded  in   many   sections   of   the   South,   especially   in   Alabama. 

Scholl  states  that  the  honey  is  dark  amber  in  color  and  used  mostly  for 
manufacturing  purposes. 

RATTLE  BOX  or  RATTLE  WEED,  see  Loco  Weed. 

RATTLESNAKE-ROOT   (Nabalus  altissimus). 

Rattlesnake  root  is  listed  by  the  late  A.  J.  Cook  as  "which  swarms 
with  bees  all  the  day  long,"  but  the  author  can  find  so  few  references  to 
it   that  it  is  probably  of  little  importance. 

RED  BAY   (Persea  Borbonia). 

Red  bay,  or  Florida  mahogany,  is  also  known  as  tisswood,  sweet  bay 
and  laurel-tree.  This  tree  should  not  be  confused  with  the  magnolia,  which 
is  also  called  sweet  bay.  (See  Magnolia).  The  alligator  pear  (Persea  per- 
sea) is  a  near  relative,  which  has  been  introduced  from  Central  America 
and  extensively  cultivated  for  its  fruit.  It  has  run  wild  in  some  parts  of 
Florida. 

Red  bay  is  reported  as  yielding  surplus  honey  in  considerable  quantity, 
but  of  poor  quality  along  the  Gulf  Coast  of  Texas.  The  honey  is  said  to  be 
very  dark,  suitable  for  baking  purposes.  Beekeepers  report  that  the  plant 
is  quite  dependable,  but  of  limited  range. 

RED-BERRY,  see  Buckthorn. 

RED  BOX-TREE,  see  Eucalyptus. 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


217 


IS.     The  blossoms  of  red-bud  appear  before  the  leaves. 


RED-BUD    (Cercis    canadensis). 

The  red-bud,  or  Judas-tree  (Fig.  118)  is  a  common  shrub  or  small  tree 
iri  the  Southeastern  States.  It  is  found  occasionally  from  western  Penn- 
sylvania  to   southern    Michigan,   southern    Iowa     and     Nebraska    south    to 


218  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

western  Florida  and  east  to  Texas.  It  grows  along  streams  and  in  the 
woodlands  where  the  soil  is  moist  and  rich.  In  Alabama  it  blooms  late  in 
February,  and  in  southern  Iowa  in  April.  The  rose-pink  blossoms  appear- 
ing in  early  spring,  before  the  leaves  are  out,  make  the  tree  very  conspicu- 
ous during  the  blooming  period.  Where  the  tree  is  abundant  it  furnishes  a 
liberal  pasture  for  the  bees  for  early  spring  brood  rearing.  Blooming  so 
early,  it  is  rarely  the  source  of  surplus.  In  the  northern  part  of  its  range  it 
often  blooms  with  fruit  trees  and  dandelion,  so  that  it  is  not  as  important 
as   farther  south. 

There  is  another  species  in  south  Texas  and  Mexico  which  blooms  in 
March,  The  Texan  red-bud  (Cercis  reniformis),  and  one,  the  western  red- 
bud  (Cercis  occidentalis),  which  occurs  in  the  mountains  of  California  and 
occasionally  in  Utah. 

The  red-bud  is  also  known  as  salad-tree,  or  June-bud. 

RED  CLOVER  (Trifolium  praiense). 

There  have  been  so  many  conflicting  statements  regarding  the  ques- 
tion as  to  whether  or  not  the  honeybee  is  able  to  secure  honey  from  red 
clover  (Trifolium  pratense)  that  it  has  seemed  worth  while  to  investigate 
the  subject  with  some  care.  There  have  been  so  many  reports  of  honey 
from  this  source,  that  it  is  desirable  to  learn  whether  the  honey  did  come 
from  red  clover,  or  whether  the  beekeepers  have  been  mistaken,  and  some 
explanation  of  the  confusion  is  necessary.  There  is  no  question  but  that 
the  plant  secretes  nectar  in  abundance,  but  since  the  corolla  tubes  are 
much  longer  than  the  tongues  of  the  bees,  they  are  unable  to  reach  it 
under  ordinary  conditions.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  plants  behave  very 
differently  under  different  climatic  conditions,  so  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  secure  evidence  from  as  many  localities  as  possible,  and  from  a  great 
variety  of  conditions. 

In  Iowa   the  writer  has   sometimes   found  bees   working  freely  on   red 
clover  in  extremely  dry  seasons.     At  such  times  the  bees  were  apparently 
getting  some  nectar,  although   it  could  not  be  detected  in  the  hive.     How- 
ever, one  year,  Mr.  C.  H.  True,  of  Edgewood,  Iowa,  had  on   exhibition   at 
the  State  Fair,  a  generous  quantity  of  honey  which  he  thought  was  secured 
from  red  clover.    It  was  slightly  tinted  with  red,  and  had  a  flavor  different 
from  white   or   alsike   clover   honey.     The   explanation   often   given   is   that 
in    dry   seasons   the   florets    are    somewhat    dwarfed,    and   because    of    the 
shorter  tube  the  bee  is  able  to  reach   the  honey.     Dr.  L.  H.  Pammel,  bot- 
anist at  the  Iowa  College  of  Agriculture,  has  made  a  special  study  of  bees 
and  red  clover  under  Iowa  conditions.     After  having  many  measurements 
made,  he  has  reached  the  conclusion   that  the   effect  on   the   length   of  the 
corolla  tube,  as  a  result  of  drought,  is  so  slight  that  the  bee  would  not  be 
able  to  reach  the  nectar  from  this  cause.     He  goes  on  record  as  follows  : 
"I  have  for  several  years  closely  observed  honeybees  and  red  clo- 
ver,  and    from   these   observances    I   am    still    inclined    to    the    opinion, 
earlier  expressed,  that  honeybees   do  not  get  nectar   from  the  flowers 
of  the  red  clover,  notwithstanding  the  opinion  of  many  beekeepers  in 
Iowa."  — Third  report  Iowa  State  Bee  Inspector. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


219 


At  the  1917  Convention  of  the  Illinois  Beekeepers,  Mr.  Frank  Bishop, 
of  Virden,  reported  that  one  season  he  secured  an  average  of  100  pounds 
per  colony  from  red  clover.  According  to  his  statement,  there  was  no 
other  bloom  within  reach  at  that  time.  He  further  stated  that  he  visited 
the  red  clover  fields,  investigated  the  matter  carefully,  and  was  fully  satis- 
lied  that  red  clover  was  the  source  of  the  honey. 


Fig.  119.     Red  clover  blossoms. 


So  many  reports  from  well-known  beekeepers  are  to  be  luund  in  our 
literature,  that  it  seems  worth  while  to  quote  several  of  them,  together 
with  the  place  where  the  reference  is  to  be  found.  Mr.  Wm.  McEvoy,  of 
"Woodburn,  Ontario,  wrote  to  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  page  468,  1907,  as 
follows  : 

"In  September,  1905,  I  extracted  over  3,000  pounds  of  pure  red 
clover  honey,  after  giving  the  bees  plenty  to  winter  on.  This  honey 
was  a  light  amber  color,  and  good  in  flavor,  and  sold  for  the  same  price 
as  honey  gathered  from  white  clover.  My  bees  being  Italians,  worked 
well  on  the  second  crop  of  red  clover,  which  was  not  injured  by  the 
midge  in  my  locality,  in  1905,  on  account  of  the  first  crop  being  cut 
early." 

Adrian  Getaz,  of  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  makes  the  following  contribution  to 
the  subject  in  Gleanings,  page  660,  1909: 

"In  regard  to  bees  gathering  nectar  from  red  clover,  several  opin- 
ions have  been  advanced.  Generally,  it  is  supposed,  that,  owing  to 
dryer  weather,  the  second  crop  has  blossoms  with  shorter  corollas,  and 
that  the  bees  can  reach  the  nectar  on  that  account.  Another  theory  is 
that  the  nectar  is  more  abundant,  and  fills  up  the  corollas  better,  and 
thus  comes  within  reach  of  the  bees.  A  German  apiarist  a  few  years 
ago  undertook  to  settle  the  matter,  and  spent  a  part  of  the  summer 
lying  down  in  the  clover  fields  to  see  how  it  was.  He  reported  that 
very  few  insects  take  the  nectar  through  the  corollas;  but  some  kinds 


220  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

cut  a  hole  near  the  bottom  and  help  themselves  through  it.  The  hole 
once  made,  a  number  of  insects,  including  bees,  take  advantage  of  it; 
and  if  the  bees  do  not  work  on  the  first  crop,  it  is  because  there  are 
few  hole-boring  insects  present." 

Here  follows  a  brief  report  with  nothing  to  indicate  whether  the  bees 
were   seeking  nectar   or   pollen: 

"Last  year  was  very  dry  and  there  was  scarcely  any  white  clover  in 
blossom  here;  but  the  bees  went  fairly  wild  on  the  red  clover,  and  it 
was  the  first  crop,  too." — J.  F.  Bradv,  Deerfield,  Minn.  Gleanings,  page 
149,  1911. 

That  the  subject  is  not  new  will  be  found  by  examining  the  files  of  the 
bee  magazines  of  many  years  ago.  Apparently,  it  has  been  a  controverted 
subject  since  beekeeping  has  been  followed  seriously  in  America.  In  the 
first  volume  of  the  American  Bee  Journal,  page  228,  1861,  we  find  the  fol- 
lowing: 

"I  noticed  in  August  and  the  beginning  of  September,  while  the 
bees  were  gathering  honey  from  buckwheat,  that  they  obtained  pollen 
of  a  brownish  color  from  some  source.  On  investigating  the  matter,  I 
found  that  they  collected  it  from  red  clover.  This  somewhat  surprised 
me,  as  I  had  never  seen  them  gathering  honey  from  the  red  clover  to 
such  an  extent,  particularly  while  other  forage  was  plenty.  *  *  *  I 
have  also  noticed  that  the  bees  visited  only  those  heads  that  were  im- 
perfect, the  tubes  being  shorter  in  consequence." 

The  principal  interest  attached  to  the  above  is  the  statement  that  the 
bees  visited  only  the  imperfect  blossoms.  On  page  9  of  the  same  volume 
is  a  statement  somewhat  similar,  reported  in  one  of  the  German  journals, 
of  Italian  bees  getting  honey  from  red  clover,  in  1858.  It  is  said  that  the 
season  was  very  dry  and  the  blossoms  somewhat  smaller  as  a  result. 

In  1899,  page  15,  American  Bee  Journal,  we  find  another  report  of  bees 
working  on   it  in   dry  weather  : 

"My  bees  work  more  or  less  on  it  almost  every  year  during  hot  and 
dry  weather,  but  it  does  not  produce  as  fine  honey  as  white  clover; 
when  candied  it  is  coarser  grained,  and  has  a  water-soaked  appearance. 
I  wish  that  my  bees  would  let  it  alone,  for  we  have  plenty  of  white 
clover  when  the  red  is  in  bloom.— Fred  Bechle,  Poweshiek  County, 
Iowa. 

Again,  on  page  27  of  the  same  issue,  Theo.  Rehorst,  of  Fond  du  Lac 
County,  Wisconsin,  reports: 

"The  mammoth  red  clover  produces  good  honey  and  all  our  honey- 
bees   can    reach    the    nectar,   although    the    corolla     is     far     longer    and 
deeper  than  the  common  red  clover.    I  never  saw  any  honey  from  com- 
mon red  clover;  only  thin,  red  stuff,  thin  as  water." 
In  1903,  E.  E.  Hasty,  of  Ohio,  wrote,  in  the  American  Bee  Journal,  that 
while   he   admitted   that   bees  worked   on   red   clover   at   times,   he   was   ex- 
tremely   doubtful    about    their    ability    to    get    much    honey    from    it.      The 
same  doubt  has  been  expressed  by  numerous  observers  from  time  to  time, 
the  usual  explanation  being  that  the  bees  are  gathering  pollen,  rather  than 
nectar. 

On  page  49  of  the  1903  volume  of  the  American  Bee  Journal  is  re- 
ported an  interesting  case  of  honeydew  from  red  clover.  Since  it  is  the 
only  case  of  the  kind  found  in  all  the  literature  consulted  it  is  quoted  quite 
fully: 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  221 

"For  about  ten  days  my  bees  have  been  bringing  in  honey  from  the 
second  crop  of  red  clover.    Now  this  is  nothing  remarkable,  for  I  have 
seen   them   doing   so   for   more   than    twenty  years   past;   but    recently, 
passing  through  a  field  of  red  clover  in  bloom,  I  stopped  to  watch  them, 
and,  to  my  surprise,  found  them  working,  not  on  the  blossoms,  but  on 
the  leaves.    This,  I  confess,  I  had  never  seen  before.     On  closer  exam- 
ination I  found  the  clover  leaves  covered  with  small  plant  lice,  and  the 
under   leaves   covered  with   honeydew,  very   similar   to  that   frequently 
found   on   the   leaves   of   the   hickory,  oak  and  other   trees,  though   the 
honey  is  not  so  dark-colored  as  from  leaves  of  trees." 
On  page  839  of  the  American  Bee  Journal  for  1906  is   found  a  rather 
convincing  discussion  of  the  subject  of  honey  from  red  clover.     It  was  at 
a  convention  of  the  National  Association,  and  several  men  of  wide  reputa- 
tion took  part  in  the  discussion,  and  testified  to  the  fact  that  they  had  se- 
cured surplus  from  red  clover.    Hutchinson  stated  that  he  had  secured  500 
pounds  from  red  clover  at  a  time  when  there  was  nothing  else  in   bloom, 
and   that   it   was   a   light   amber   or   dark   white   color.     Messrs.   Townsend, 
Stone,  Davenport  and  others   agreed    that    they    had    secured    red    clover 
honey,  Townsend  reporting  as  much  as  2,000  pounds  stored  in   two  weeks' 
time. 

The  subject  is  discussed  at  length  in  Bulletin  No.  46  of  the  New  Zea- 
land Department  of  Agriculture,  by  Isaac  Hopkins,  whose  experience  in 
this  connection  is   interesting.     We  quote  him  in   part  : 

"In  my  early  days  of  beekeeping  it  was  a  moot  point  whether  Ital- 
ian bees  worked  on  red  clover  or  not.  At  this  time  I  had  a  unique  op- 
portunity of  testing  the  matter  thoroughly,  an  opportunity  which 
would  rarely  occur;  therefore,  I  feel  myself  on  safe  ground  when  deal- 
ing with  Italian  bees  and  red  clover. 

"For  five  years  (1882-87),  I  was  located  on  the  late  J.  C.  Firth's 
estate  at  Matamata,  where  I  started  large  bee  farms.  My  bees,  which 
were  chiefly  Italians,  were  near  to  thousands  of  acres  of  red  clover. 
*  *  *  Now  and  again  we  saw  a  few  here  and  there  gathering  pollen 
from  the  blossoms,  and  sometimes  a  good  deal  of  pollen  from  red  clo- 
ver was  brought  in  when,  no  doubt,  it  was  scarce  elsewhere. 

"In  order  to  make  a  thorough  test,  I  shifted,  on  one  occasion,  a 
number  of  strong  two-story  colonies  to  the  center  of  a  700-acre  pad- 
dock of  red  clover.  The  first  crop  had  been  cut  for  hay,  and  the  sec- 
ond crop  flowers  were  just  opening.  There  was  no  ordinary  bee  for- 
age anywhere  near.  After  the  fourth  day,  I  examined  the  hives  and 
found  from  the  odor  that  came  from  them  on  removing  the  covers  that 
some  nectar  had  been  gathered  from  the  surrounding  clover.  I  also 
observed  that  some  clover  pollen  had  been  stored. 

"There  were  two  seasons  out  of  the  five  when  my  bees  worked 
more  freely  on  the  red  clover  than  in  others.  In  these  seasons  it  was 
noticeable  that  myriads  of  small-sized  moths  flitted  about  the  clover, 
while  they  were  rarely  seen  at  other  times.  I  was  much  interested,  and 
in  casting  about  for  a  reason,  I  became  satisfied,  after  very  many  tests, 
that  the  red  clover  was  secreting  at  times  much  more  nectar  than 
usual,  and  it  may  have  been  that  it  reached  a  higher  level  in  the  tubes 
on  these  occasions,  and  so  came  within  reach  of  the  tongues  of  the 
bees.  Be  that  as  it  may,  some  red  clover  nectar  was  gathered  from  sec- 
ond crop  flowers  in  these  seasons." 

While  the  different  observers  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  the  reason 
why  the  bees  are  able  to  get  nectar  from  red  clover  on  occasion,  the  tes- 
timony is  very  closely  agreed  upon  the  fact  that  it  is  only  from  the  sec- 


222  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

ond  crop,  and  in  hot  and  dry  seasons,  that  the  bees  are  able  to  store  honey 
from  this  source.  So  many  widely-known  men  come  forward  with  the 
positive  statement  that  they  have  been  able  to  secure  surplus  honey  from 
red  clover,  that  we  can  hardly  question  the  fact  that  honey  is  sometimes 
stored  from  this  plant.  Whether  the  corollas  are  punctured  by  other  in- 
sects, the  tubes  are  shortened  by  drought  or  the  nectar  rises  higher  in  the 
tube,   remains   to  be   proven. 

RED   GAURA   (Gaura   coccinea). 

The  red  gaura,  also  called  ragged  lady,  is  common  from  Montana  to 
Arizona  and  Texas.  It  is  much  sought  by  the  bees  for  both  nectar  and 
pollen.  Its  nectar  secretion  is  abundant,  but  it  is  not  sufficiently  common 
to  be  important.     A  good  stimulant. 

RED  GUM,  see  Eucalyptus. 
RED-HAW,  see  Hawthorne. 
RESEDA   ODORATA,   see   Mignonette. 

RETAMA   (Parkinsonia   aculeata). 

Retama  is  a  small  tree  common  throughout  southern  and  western 
Texas.  It  has  slender  branches,  bearing  the  yellow  petaled  flowers  in  ax- 
illary racemes.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  source  of  nectar  by  Texas 
beekeepers.  Scholl  states  that  the  bees  work  on  it  more  or  less  all  sum- 
mer. Like  many  Texas  shrubs,  it  has  a  habit  of  blooming  at  irregular 
periods,  from  spring  till  September. 

RHODE   ISLAND— Honey   Sources   of. 

The  sources  of  honey  in  Rhode  Island  grouped  in  the  order  of  their 
appearance  are  willows,  maples  and  other  less  numerous  trees,  which 
furnish  bees  with  the  early  supply  of  pollen  and  honey,  so  useful  and  so 
needful  in  building  up  the  bee  population  preparatory  to  the  harvest  in 
which   the  beekeeper  shares. 

Next  come  the  fruit  blossoms,  plum,  peach,  cherry,  pear,  apple,  rasp- 
berries, huckleberries  and  blueberries  which,  when  the  spring  is  favorable, 
yield  good  crops  of  honey.  In  some  places,  dandelions  are  an  important 
addition  to  the  fruit  bloom,  though  not  always  opening  at  the  same  time. 
In  several  parts  of  the  State  there  are  large  areas  of  locust.  This  blooms 
the  latter  part  of  May,  and  when  conditions  favor,  yields  for  about  eight 
days  a  heavy  water-white  honey.  The  clovers  usually  follow  this,  but  are 
of  consequence  only  under  favorable  conditions  of  rainfall,  save  in  a  few 
sections   where   soil   conditions   afford   abundant   moisture. 

In  many  sections  sumacs  furnish  the  next  crop,  and  where  they  are 
sufficiently  abundant  the  beekeeper  may  rightly  look  for  a  good  crop  of  a 
very  fair  honey. 

In  some  of  the  more  swampy  and  less  settled  sections,  button  bush,  cle- 
thra  (sweet  pepper  bush)  and  clematis  yield  a  white  and  highly-flavored 
honey,  that  from  clematis  being  of  the  very  highest  quality.  But  the  yield 
from  these  plants  is  irregular,  in  some  years  being  almost  absent. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  223 

In  some  of  the  villages  and  cities  the  European  lindens  are  numerous 
and  yield  heavily.  The  bloom  ceases  toward  the  end  of  the  clover  flow, 
though  the  time  of  flowering  of  different  trees  in  the  same  neighborhood 
varies  greatly.  Native  linden,  basswood,  is  now  found  only  in  a  few  places. 
The  season  closes  with  the  goldenrods  and  asters,  which  yield  a  rich, 
aromatic  honey  which,  though  not  acceptable  to  many  persons,  commands 
a  fancy  price  from  others.  The  crop  from  these  two  sources  is  not  always 
to  be  depended  upon,  being  more  affected  by  the  weather  than  some  of 
the  others. — Arthur  C.  Miller,  Bulletin,  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

RHODODENDRON,  see  Azalea. 
RHUS,  see  Sumac. 
FICHARDIA,   see   Mexican   Clover. 
ROBINIA,  see  Locust. 

ROCKBRUSH   (Eysenhardtia  amorphoides). 

Rockbrush  is  a  small  shrub  common  to  southern  and  western  Texas, 
and  extending  into  Mexico.  It  blooms  after  heavy  rains,  several  times 
during  the  year,  and  yields  honey  in  surplus  quantity.  It  is  reported  fre- 
quently throughout  the  region  south  and  west  of  San  Antonio  to  the  Rio 
Grande. 

Colubrina  Texensis,  an  entirely  different  shrub,  which  is  common  from 
the  Colorado  River  to  the  Rio  Grande  and  west  to  New  Mexico,  is  also 
known  by  the  name  of  rockbrush.  It  is  reported  as  yielding  both  pollen 
and  nectar,  but  not  as  a  source  of  surplus  honey. 

ROCKY    MOUNTAIN    BEE    PLANT    (Cleome   integrifolia). 

The  Rocky  Mountain  bee  plant,  also  known  as  stinking  clover  (Fig. 
120),  is  principally  confined  in  its  distributions  to  the  plains  region  west 
of  tlie  Missouri  River.  It  is  also  reported  from  north  Pacific  Coast  States. 
While  it  is  a  dry  land  plant,  it  is  occasionally  reported  from  Illinois,  Iowa 
and  Minnesota.  Although  it  is  occasionally  seen  elsewhere,  the  author 
has  not  seen  it  in  Iowa  excepting  on  the  Missouri  River  bluffs,  where  it  is 
plentiful  in  some  localities.  This  plant  is  reported  as  especially  valuable 
in  Colorado,  where   it   is  said  to  produce  considerable  quantities  of  honey. 

It  is  an  annual  with  large,  showy,  pink  or  purple  flowers.  At  one  time 
there  was  much  interest  in  this  plant  on  the  part  of  eastern  beekeepers 
who  tried  to  introduce  it  by  sowing  seed.  At  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
College  a  small  field  was  planted  to  ascertain  whether  it  could  be  grown 
profitably  for  honey  alone.  As  no  plant  has  as  yet  proven  to  be  sufficiently 
valuable  to  justify  its  cultivation  for  this  purpose  exclusively,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  Rocky  Mountain  bee  plant  did  not  prove  to  be  an  excep- 
tion. It  is  acrid  and  pungent  and  said  to  be  distasteful  to  animals,  which 
seldom  eat  it.  If  the  plant  had  any  value  for  any  purpose  besides  honey 
production,  an  effort  to  extend  the  area  of  the  distribution  might  succeed, 
but  the  introduction  of  plants  that  are  essentially  weeds  in  their  nature 
seldom  meets  with  favor. 

According  to  Frank  Rauchfuss,  the  cleome  is  erratic  in  its  yield.  If 
15 


224 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


there  is  a  wet  spring  the  seeds  germinate  early.  When  this  is  followed  with 
good  rains  in  June  the  plants  are  vigorous  and  spreading  in  their  growth 
and  each  will  have  many  blossoms.  One  year  he  extracted  an  average  of 
116  pounds  per  colony  from  a  ten-days'  flow.  The  honey  is  white  in  color, 
with  a  greenish  tinge.  It  has  a  rather  sickening  flavor  when  fresh,  but  im- 
proves with  age.  When  pure  it  is  a  first  quality  honey.  It  is  rare  that  a 
good  crop  is  secured  from  his  source. 

The  plant  thrives  best  on  sandy  and  gravellv  soils. 


Fig.  120.     Cleome,  or  Rocky  Mountain  bee  plant. 
ROMAN    CANDLE,   see   Yucca. 


ROSE    (Rosa). 

There  are  many  species  of  roses  of  wide  distribution.  They  yield 
pollen  abundantly  and  are  frequently  valuable,  in  localities  where  they 
bloom  when  pollen  is  scarce.  There  are  numerous  reports  of  rose  honey, 
but  in  most  cases  the  observer  has  probably  mistaken  the  object  of  the 
bees  when  working  on  the  flowers.  Several  competent  observers  credit  the 
Cherokee  rose  as  a  source  of  nectar.  (See  Cherokee  Rose.) 

"Some  time  ago  quite  a  discussion  was  brought  about  by  the  as- 
sertion of  Gaston  Bonnier,  that  one  never  saw  bees  upon  roses,  no 
matter  how  colored  or  how  fragrant.  Dr.  Miller  replied  that  he  had 
often  seen  them  upon  the  crimson  ramblers  and  that  they  even  tore 
the  buds  open. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  225 

"The  magazine  'LAbeille  de  l'Aube,'  in  its  August  number  quotes 
the  different  assertions  which  were  made  upon  the  subject  since  then 
in  Europe. 

"Mr.  Bonnier  came  back  with  the  assertion  that  the  bees  were 
only  hunting  pollen,  for,  according  to  him,  there  is  no  nectar  in  roses. 

"Joan  Ruppin,  of  Fountenay-Aux-Roses,  saw  his  bees  take  pollen 
on   the   roses,   but   never   any   nectar. 

"A.  Martinot  saw  the  bees  often  on  the  crimson  ramblers  and  on 
other  similar  roses,  never  on  the  double  flowers. 

"Mr.  Pitrat  believes  they  find  both  nectar  and  pollen  on  the  simple 
flowers. 

"Louis  Rosseil,  Consul  of  Belgium  in  Athens,  says  that  in  the  Island 
of  Eubia,  the  bees  work  upon  fields  of  roses  and  produce  a  whit~  honey 
much    esteemed." — American    Bee   Journal,   October,    1912. 
Beekeepers   in    the    Rocky   Mountains   of   Colorado   and   on    the    Pacific 
Coast  report   that   their  bees  get  honey  from   roses. 

ROSIN  WEED,  see  Cup  Plant,  also  Gum  Weed. 
ROYAL  PALM,  see   Palm. 
RUBUS,  see  Raspberry. 
RUDBECKIA,  see  Coneflower. 
RUSSIAN  OLIVE,  see  Oleaster. 


SABAL,  see   Palmetto. 

SAGE   (Salvia). 

When  sage  is  mentioned,  we  of  the  east  are  likely  to  think  of  the 
common  garden  sage  (Salvia  officinalis),  which  for  at  least  three  centuries 
has  been  cultivated  for  its  aromatic  leaves.  Of  this  there  are  several 
varieties,  some  with  broad  and  some  with  narrow  leaves.  The  garden 
sages  are  good  honey  plants,  but  seldom  sufficiently  abundant  to  amount 
to  much  as  honey  producers.  The  honey  from  the  garden  sage  is  said  to 
be  nice  and  white  like  that  from  catnip  or  motherwort. 

The  name  sage  is  derived  from  its  supposed  power  to  make  people 
wise  by  strengthening  the  memory,  for  which  it  was  used  in  ancient  medi- 
cine. 

There  are  upwards  of  five  hundred  species  of  sages,  widely  distributed 
in  the  temperate  and  warmer  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  Probably  most 
of  the  species  yield  honey,  although  but  few  are  known  to  be  important, 
bayment  mentions  the  wild  sage  (Salvia  verbenacea)  as  introduced  into 
Australia  from  Europe,  but  now  yielding  honey  during  the  dry  months 
of  the  year.  (Money  in  bees  in  Australasia.)  There  are  more  than  two 
hundred  species  known  to  occur  in  Mexico  and  Central  America  and  it  is 
very  probable  that  when  beekeeping  is  developed  on  a  commercial  scale  in 
those  countries,  the  sages  will  be  found  to  be  very  important  honey  plants. 


226 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Fig.  121.     White  sage  is  uncertain  in  its  yield. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  227 

Since  practically  all  sage  honey  that  goes  to  market  in  America  is 
from  California,  the  sages  from  that  State  are  of  first  importance.  Sage 
is  known  to  occur  in  other  Western  States  and  the  question  is  sometimes 
asked  whether  any  honey  is  secured  from  this  source  elsewhere.  In 
answer  to  this  question  Mr.  J.  E.  Miller,  of  Caldwell,  Idaho,  writes,  in 
Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture  (September  15,  1908,  as  follows  : 

"My  neighbor,  Mr.  Garfield,  experimented  with  one  colony  of  bees 
by  taking  it  eight  or  nine  miles  away  from  alfalfa  or  other  cultivated 
fields,  and  setting  it  among  the  white  sage.  He  went  out  to  look  after 
it  every  week  and  took  fresh  water.  We  do  not  know  the  exact 
amount  of  honey  the  bees  gathered,  but  they  did  fully  as  well  as  those 
left  at  home  near  the  alfalfa.  The  honey  was  of  that  water-white 
color  peculiar  to  California  sage  honey.  Mr.  Garfield  sent  samples  to 
California  and  it  was  pronounced  A-l  white  sage;  so  we  are  convinced 
that  the  white  sage  of  Idaho  does  yield  just  as  much  and  just  as  good 
honey  as  that  of  any  other  State." 

It  is  probable  that  one  or  more  species  of  sage  occur  in  nearly  every 
State,  but  they  increase  in  abundance  westward.  In  the  arid  country  west 
of  the  Missouri  River  they  become  sufficiently  common  so  that  an  appre- 
ciable amount  of  honey  might  be  expected  in  many  localities.  It  is  quite 
likely  that  sage  honey  in  small  amounts  is  mixed  with  honey  from  other 
sources,  and  .so  not  detected,  in  many  many  localities  outside  of  California. 
The  fact  remains,  nevertheless,  that  sage,  as  an  important  source  of  sur- 
plus, is  not  reported  outside  of  that   State. 

The  quality  of  sage  honey  is  of  the  best,  being  watervwhite  in  color,  of 
a  heavy  body  and  delightful  flavor.     Since  it  does  not  granulate,  it  is  much 
sought  for  by  bottlers  in  the  east,  who  blend  it  with  clover  or  alfalfa.    There 
are  many  who  regard  sage  honey  as  the  finest  in  the  market.     In  this  con- 
nection A.  I.  Root,  in  an  early  edition  of  his  A   B  C  of  Bee  Culture,  wrote: 
"I  well  remember  the  first  taste   I   had  of  the  mountain  sage  honey. 
Air.  Langstroth  was  visiting  me  at  the  time,  and  his  exclamations  were 
much  like  my  own,  only  that  he  declared  that  it  was  almost  identical  in 
flavor   with   the   famed   honey   of  Hymettus,  of   which   he   had   received 
a   sample   some   years   ago.     Well,  this   honey  of  Hymettus.   which    has 
been  celebrated  both  in  prose  and  poetry  for  ages  past,  was  gathered 
from    the    mountain    thyme,    and    the    botany    tells    us    that    thyme    and 
sage  are  closely  related." 

Although  there  are  several  species  of  sage  which  yield  honey  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  quality  does  not  differ  materially,  as  far  as  can  be  ascertained 
from  printed  reports.  It  is  all  described  as  "water-white,  unexcelled  flavor, 
of  heavy  body  and  does  not  granulate." 

Prof.  A.  J.  Cook  wrote  to  the  American  Bee  Journal  (June  21,  1906) 
concerning  the   sage  as   follows  : 

"Chief  among  the  honey-bearing  mints  are  the  incomparable  sages 
of  California.  These  are  not  excelled  even  by  the  clovers  or  linden. 
The  honey  is  white,  delicate  of  flavor,  and  must  ever  rank  among  the 
best  in  appearance  and  quality.  Not  only  this,  but  the  quantity  is  often 
phenomenal.  This  comes  from  the  fact  that  flowers  are  borne  in  long 
racemes  of  compact  heads,  and  as  the  separated  flowerets  do  not  bloom 
all  at  once,  but  in  succession,  the  plants  are  in  bloom  for  weeks.  The 
sages,  then,  are  marvelous  honey  producers,  first,  because  of  the  gen- 


228 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


erous  secretions  of  each  floweret,  and  second,  because  of  the  immense 
number  of  these  flowerets  and  the  long  period  of  bloom." 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  229 

At  another  time  Mr.  Cook  wrote  that  the  honey  from  all  sages  is  so 
much  alike  that  it  would  be  indistinguishable. — American  Bee  Journal, 
August  3,  1905. 

Richter,  in  his  Honey  Plants  of  California,  speaks  of  the  white  sage 
(Salvia  apiana)  Jep.,  as  "very  common  on  the  dry  plains  toward  the  foot- 
hills, and  ascending  these  to  about  3,000  feet."     (Fig.  121). 

Writing  in  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture,  P.  C.  Chadwick  describes  a  jour- 
ney which  he  made  in  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains  with  the  intent  to 
find  out  the  highest  elevation  at  which  bloom  could  be  found  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  support  bees.  Up  to  an  elevation  of  7,000  feet  he  found  white 
sage  in  abundance,  and  all  alive  with  bees.  (Western  Honey  Bee,  Septem- 
ber, 1914.)  Richter  gives  its  range  as  common  from  Santa  Barbara  County 
southward,  blooming  from  April  to  July.  'As  abundant  as  the  black  sage, 
but  not  as  good  a  yielder,  nor  has  the  honey  as  fine  a  flavor." 

Black  sage  (Salvia  mellifera),  Greene,  also  known  as  ball  sage,  or  but- 
ton sage  (Fig.  122),  is  generally  credited  as  being  the  principal  source  of 
sage  honey,  most  of  the  honey  which  goes  to  market  under  the  name  of 
white  sage  being  produced  from  this  plant.  Quite  probably  it  is  the  best 
honey  plant  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Richter  says  of  it  :  "As  a  general  rule, 
every  fifth  year  an  excellent  crop  is  obtained,  and  every  third  or  fourth 
year  a  total  failure  is  experienced,  the  flow  being  dependent  upon  winter 
rains,  with  warm  spring  quite  free  from  cold  winds  and  fog.  When  in 
bloom  a  certain  amount  of  warm  weather  is  required  before  it  produces 
nectar." 

The  range  of  black  sage  is  given  as  "Mt.  Diablo,  Los  Trampas  Ridge, 
near  Hayward,  San  Mateo  County,  Glenwood  and  Brieta,  southward  to 
southern  California.  April-May."  (Jepson).  "Coast  ranges  and  ascending 
to  5.IKHJ  feet  in  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains.  March  to  June.  San  Diego 
County,  February  to  May." 

Mr.  J.  E.  Pleasants,  of  Orange,  California,  writing  in  American  Bee 
Journal  (June,  1914)  describes  the  peculiarities  of  the  sages  as  follows: 

"The  black  sage  is  king  of  them  all.  When  climatic  conditions  are 
favorable  I  think  black  sage  can  be  relied  upon  to  produce  more  'gilt 
edge'  than  any  other  plant  in  the  West,  and  for  body  and  flavor  it  is 
hard  to  excel.  It  blooms  for  weeks.  The  blossom  is  small  and  incon- 
spicuous, but  what  a  flow  of  nectar  it  can  yield. 

"The  white  sage  is  a  much  prettier  plant.  Its  soft,  grey  leaves  and 
tall  blossom  spikes  make  it  quite  showy,  while  its  pleasing  aromatic 
odor  breathes  the  very  essence  of  wild  perfumes.  But  this  queenly 
plant  is  much  more  inconstant  than  its  plainer  sister.  Some  years  it 
produces  a  good  harvest,  others  very  light. 

"The  silver  or  purple  sage,  which  has  silvery  leaves  and  brilliant 
light  purple  blossoms,  is  usually  a  good  producer,  but  is  much  restricted 
as  to  locality." 

The  purple  sage  (Salvia  leucophylla)  (Fig.  123).  also  called  white-leaved 
sage,  or  silver  sage,  is  reported  as  a  good  yielder,  although  not  as  abund- 
ant as  either  of  the  foregoing  species.  The  Richter  catalog  gives  the 
range  as  occasional  in  the  foothills  of  the  Santa  Monica  and  San  Fernando 
Mountains,  April  to  July,  and  from  San  Luis  Obispo  to  San  Diego  Counties 
and  not  extending  inland  beyond  the  coast  ranges. 


230 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


The  purple  sage. 


Salvia  amabilis,  loving  sage,  is  reported  from  Santa  Barbara,  March- 
June,  but  probably  not  important. 

Salvia  carduacea,  thistle  or  annual  sage.  "Inner  coast  range  valleys 
and  throughout  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  southern  California,  June."  (Jep- 
son).     "A  well-known  honey  plant."     (Richter). 

Salvia  columbariae,  annual  sage.  "Throughout  the  coast  ranges,  Sierra 
Nevada  and  southern  California,  on  hill  and  mountain  slopes."  (Jepson). 

Salvia  sonomensis,  Greene,  creeping  sage.    "Montana  species  at  middle 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  231 

altitudes.  Ramona  Mountains  west  of  Calistoga,  Mt.  Shasta,  Calaveras  and 
Mariposa  Counties,  San  Diego  County.  May."  (Jepson).  "Also  June,  Sierra 
foothills  from  Sierra  to  Inyo  Counties,  main  source  of  honey  in  many  dis- 
tricts."    (Richter). 

Concerning  the  regularity  of  yield  from  sage,  Mr.  P.  C.  Chadwick 
wrote  in  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture  (January  1,  1911),  as  follows: 

"South  of  the  Tehachapi  Mountains  lies  practically  the  entire  sage 
of  our  State,  notwithstanding  eastern  people  and  many  of  our  west- 
erners term  every  form  of  small  growth  on  the  vast  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  "sage  brush.'  There  is  no  denying  that  the  button 
(or  black)  sage  is,  of  all  honey  plants,  our  chief  surplus  producer. 
Neither  does  it  average  a  crop  more  often  than  every  other  year,  re- 
gardless of  rainfall,  for  it  seems  necessary,  from  its  semi-arid  nature, 
to  be  dried  out  or  rested  before  it  comes  back  to  its  prime  yielding  con- 
dition. I  have  seen  it  return  some  surplus  for  three  consecutive  sea- 
sons; but  the  middle  season  was  not  what  could  be  considered  a  crop, 
even  after  a  sufficient  rainfall." 

Again  he  writes  to  the  same  journal  to  the  effect  that  the  sage  ranges 
soon  give  place  to  other  crops  (Dec.  15,  1911)  : 

"If  I  should  predict  that  thirty  years  hence  the  sage  ranges  of 
California  would  be  almost  a  thing  of  the  past  there  would  doubtless 
be  criticism  of  my  views  ;  but  1  firmly  believe  that  we  shall  face  such  a 
condition,  for  emigration  to  this  part  of  California  is  increasing  rap- 
idly. Hillsides  are  yielding  to  the  plow,  where  twenty  years  ago  it 
would  have  been  thought  almost  impossible." 

Some  writers  give  two  hundred  pounds  per  colony  as  a  fair  average 
in  a  good  sage  year,  so  that  with  even  one  good  year  in  three  it  comes  well 
up  with  the  yield  of  many  plants  more  constant  in  their  production. 

SAINFOIN    or   ESPARCET   (Onobrychis   sativa). 

Sainfoin  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  Canada,  and  although  given 
numerous  trials  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  has  not,  till  the  pres- 
ent, succeeded  in  establishing  itself  successfully.  It  is  a  splendid  forage 
crop,  somewhat  similar  to  alfalfa,  and  is  an  important  source  of  nectar  in 
Italy  and  other  parts   of   Europe. 

Several  years  ago  it  was  given  an  enthusiastic  endorsement  as  a  honey 
plant  for  America  by  John  Fixter,  at  that  time  apiarist  at  the  Central 
Experiment  Farms  at  Ottawa,  Canada.  A  test  plot  at  the  Farms  proved 
so  attractive  to  the  bees  that  it  attracted  much  attention  on  the  part 
cf  eastern  beekeepers.  He  reported  that  it  yielded  nectar  in  the  morning 
and  that  the  bees  began  work  upon  it  fully  an  hour  before  they  did  on 
alsike  or  white  clover.  A  further  advantage  was  stated  to  be  that  the  first 
bloom  came  between  fruit  bloom  and  white  clover  and  the  later  bloom  at 
a  time  when  there  was  a  dearth  from  other  sources.  On  plots  side  by 
side  he  reported  that  there  would  be  something  like  a  hundred  bees  on  the 
sainfoin  to  ten  on  the  white  clover. 

In  spite  of  the  glowing  accounts  of  its  value  and  a  general  attempt  to 
boom  the  plant,  it  failed  to  succeed.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  there  was  a  general  failure  with  alfalfa  when  first  attempts  were 
made  to  grow  it  in  America,  and  it  would  seem  worthy  of  further  trial  to 


232  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

see  whether  there  are  not  sections  better  adapted  to  its  growth. 

The  following  article  by  C.  P.  Dadant,  reprinted  from  the  American 
Bee  Journal,  page  790,  1904,  will  give  some  information  about  the  value  of 
the  plant  in  European   countries: 

"Sainfoin,  otherwise  called  esparcet,  is  widely  cultivated  in  Europe, 
especially  in  France.  Its  name,  "sainfoin,"  is  French,  and  literally 
means  "healthy  hay" — sain-foin.  It  is  a  perennial,  gives  a  splendid 
hay  crop,  and  in  some  sections  of  the  European  continent  it  is  a  first- 
class  honey-producer. 

"The  small  province  of  France,  formerly  called  "Gatinais,"  is  the 
leading  producer  of  sainfoin  honey.  According  to  the  best  authorities, 
the  honey  of  Gatinais  has  the  reputation  of  being  of  the  whitest  color 
and  sweetest  taste,  and  is  said  to  be  in  no  way  surpassed  by  white  clo- 
ver honey. 

"Gaston  Bonnier,  the  eminent  professor  who  was  President  of  the 
International  congress  of  beekeepers  at  Paris  in  1900,  says  in  his 
book,  the  'Cours  Complet  d'Apiculture,'  that  sainfoin  honey  is  one  of 
the  best  appreciated  grades.  He  ranks  it  next  only  to  the  honey  of 
the   Alpine   hills   of   eastern    France   and   Switzerland. 

"From  immemorial  times  the  honey  crops  of  Gatinais  have  been 
considered  as  leading  in  the  amount  of  production,  and  this  was  all 
credited  to  the  sainfoin,  which  is  grown  there  in  immense  quantities, 
somewhat  as  alfalfa  is  grown  in  the  irrigated  plains  of  the  West.  It 
was  in  Gatinais  that  the  custom  of  inverting  hives  began,  in  order  to 
secure  the  largest  possible  quantity  of  honey  from  the  bees,  regardless 
of  future  consequences.  For  that  reason  the  beekeepers  of  Gatinais 
were  compelled  to  replenish  apiaries  every  season  with  bees  brought 
from  away,  as  their  only  aim  was  to  secure  the  largest  possible  quan- 
tity of  sainfoin  honey  during  the  short  period  of  the  bloom,  and  many 
of  their  bees  perished  the  following  winter. 

"Although  sainfoin  has  already  been  tried  in  the  United  States  with 
unfavorable  results,  I  believe  it  is  worth  while  to  try  it  again,  espe- 
cially in  the  countries  where  alfalfa  succeeds  so  well.  It  might  prove 
a  useful  honey  plant. 

"We  must,  however,  not  close  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  honey 
plants  do  not  yield  honey  in  the  same  proportion  in  all  localities.  White 
clover,  which  is  the  source  of  so  large  a  crop  of  white  honey  in  this 
country,  is  absolutely  useless  as  a  honey  producer  in  some  other  coun- 
tries. Edouard  Bertrand,  the  editor  of  the  Revue  Internationale,  told 
me  positively  that  there  never  had  been  any  white  clover  honey  har- 
vested in  Switzerland  by  any  of  his  friends,  although  it  is  quite  com- 
mon in  the  Swiss  meadows." 

SALAD-TREE,  see  Red-Bud. 

SALAL  (Gaultheria  shallon). 

Salal  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  one  to  five  feet  high,  common  from  cen- 
tral California  north  to  Washington.  It  grows  abundantly  in  the  redwood 
forests  commonly  covering  the  ground.  The  flowers  occur  in  racemes 
three  to  six  inches  long  and  are  pink  or  pinkish  white. 

It  blooms  with  salmon-berry,  wild  blackberry  and  chittam,  so  the  honey 
is  seldom  secured  unmixed. 

SALIX,  see  Willow. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


233 


SALMON    BERRY   or   THIMBLE    BERRY    (Rubacer   parviflorus). 

The  salmon  berry  or  Thimble  berry,  also  known  as  flowering  rasp- 
berry, shown  at  Figure  124,  is  a  well  known  honey  plant  on  the  Pacific 
Coast.  It  occurs  along  the  coast  from  Alaska  to  Mexico.  It  also  occurs 
in  the  mountains  as  far  south  as  Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  It  is  a  shrub 
with  erect  stem  and  red  fruit.  It  is  known  to  some  extent  in  Ontario  west 
to  Dakota. 

Salmon  berry  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  source  of  honey  in  the  Pa- 
cific Northwest,  especially  in  Washington,  Oregon  and  British  Columbia. 


himble  berry. 


SALT  CEDAR  (Tamarix  gallica). 

Scholl's  Bulletin  lists  the  salt  cedar  as  a  source  of  honey  in  Texas. 
"Common  European  shrub  which  seems  to  have  escaped  in  many  places  in 
Texas."  (Coulter).  "On  roadsides,  in  thickets  and  waste  places  in  warmer 
parts  of  southern  United  States,  naturalized  from  southern  Europe." 
(Small.)  The  author  has  reports  of  this  plant  being  common  in  the  vicinity 
of  Corpus  Christi,  Texas.  Reported  also  as  a  honey  plant  in  places  in  Cali- 
fornia. 


SANDVINE,  see   Bluevine. 


234  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

SAPINDUS,  see  Wild  China. 

SASKATCHEWAN— Honey   Sources    of. 

The  sources  of  nectar,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  are  fireweed, 
wolfberry,  prairie  flowers,  alsike  and  white  clover  and  Siberian  pea-tree. 
Willows  and  maples  for  early  brood  rearing  are  important. — F.  W.  L. 
Sladen. 

SASSAFRAS  (Sassafras  officinale). 

Sassafras  is  an  exceedingly  well-known  tree  in  the  Southwestern 
States.  It  is  known  occasionally  as  far  north  as  Ontario  and  Massachu- 
setts southward  to  southeastern  Iowa,  eastern  Kansas  and  south  to  the 
Brazos  Valley  in  Texas.  It  is  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the  old  fields  of 
the  southern  plantations.  It  has  spicy  aromatic  bark  and  mucilaginous 
buds  and  leaves  which  many  people  enjoy  chewing.  Oil  of  sassafras  is  dis- 
tilled from  the  roots. 

The  flowers  are  small,  yellow  and  inconspicuous,  but  are  attractive 
to  the  bees.  The  writer  has  found  occasional  reports  of  bees  working  on 
sassafras  in  the  Southern  States.  At  Buffalo,  Texas,  it  is  reported  as  bloom- 
ing about  two  weeks.  H.  B.  Parks  reports  that  it  yields  well  in  Missouri. 
The  blooming  period  is  early  and  short,  hence  its  principal  value  is  for 
spring  brood  rearing.  It  was  blooming  with  willow  on  March  20,  1918,  in 
Leon  County,  Texas,  when  the  author  visited  that  section,  and  the  bees 
were   apparently  getting  considerable  nectar   from   sassafras   at   that   time. 

SATUREJA,  see  Wild  Pennyroyal. 
SAW  PALMETTO,  see  Palmetto. 

SCILLA. 

The  Scilla  siberica,  or  Siberian  squill,  is  an  early  blooming  old  world 
flower  commonly  naturalized  in  the  grass  of  lawns,  parks,  etc.,  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  It  has  small  blue  flowers  which  appear  as  soon  as  the 
ground  is  free  from  frost  in  the  spring.  The  bees  seek  them  eagerly  and, 
coming  at  a  time  when  little  is  to  be  had,  they  keep  the  bees  busy  on  the 
few  sunny  days  of  early  spring.  Flower  lovers  will  find  this  plant  a  de- 
sirable addition  to  their  garden  list.  Aside  from  planting  the  bulbs  no 
care  is  necessary.  It  will  thrive  in  a  stiff  bluegrass  sod,  where  few  other 
plants  would  grow.  It  is  only  necessary  to  avoid  cutting  the  grass  till 
the  plants  have  matured. 

SCROPHULARIA,  see  Figwort. 
SCRUB  PALMETTO,  see  Palmetto. 
SENSITIVE  PEA,  see  Partridge  Pea. 
SHEEP  LAUREL,  see  Laurel. 
SHITTIM-WOOD,  see  Gum   Elastic. 
SHOESTRING  VINE,  see  Bluevine. 
SHRUBBY  TREFOIL,  see  Hop-Tree. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


235 


"%      ■■  «p* '     - 

'9H 

|     :          \    » 

■  / 

rar     JmaG      w^\       *x   I 

Fig.  125.     The  blossoms  of  Siberian  squill  are  attractive  to  the  bees  in  early  spring. 

SIBERIAN   SQUILL,  see  Scilla. 
SILKWEED,  see   Milkweed. 
SILPHIUM,  see  Cup   Plant. 
SILVERBERRY,  see   Oleaster. 
SIMPSON'S  HONEY  PLANT,  see  Figwort. 

SKUNK  CABBAGE   (Symplocarpus  foetidus). 

The  skunk  cabbage  is  found  in  wet  places  from  Nova  Scotia  to  North 
Carolina  and  west  to  Iowa.  It  receives  its  name  from  the  strong  odor 
which  it  gives  off.  Skunk  cabbage  is  one  of  the  very  first  plant  to  bloom 
as  frost  is  leaving  the  ground  in  spring,  and  its  principal  value  to  the  bee- 
keeper comes  from  this  early  appearance.  The  late  G.  M.  Doolittle  wrote 
(Gleanings,  1909,  page  200)  that  he  had  seen  the  bees  gathering  pollen  from 
this  plant  when  the  temperature  stood  at  42  degrees.  He  stated  further 
that  lie  valued  it  more  highly  than  any  other  pollen-yielding  plant  or  tree, 
and  that  there  was  nothing  with  which  he  was  familiar  so  eagerly  sought 
by  the  bees,  nor  any  source  of  pollen  which  so  greatly  stimulated  brood 
rearing. 

SMARTWEED,  see  Heartsease. 
SNEEZEWEED,  see  Bitterweed. 


SNOWBERRY    (Symphoricarpos    racemosus).      WAXBERRY. 

The  snowberry  is  a  low  branching  shrub  with  conspicuous  white  ber- 
ries which  hang  on  through  most  of  the  winter.  It  is  of  wide  distribution 
in  the  Northern  States  from  New  England  and  Pennsylvania  to  the  North 


236 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Pacific  Coast.  It  is  also  common  in  the  hill  country  of  much  of  California, 
in  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Mexico  and  in  parts  of  Colorado  and  other 
mountain  States.  The  blossoms  are  small  and  inconspicuous,  but  they  are 
attractive  to  the  bees,  nevertheless.  The  snowberry  is  a  valuable  plant 
in  many  localities  in  the  West,  but  is  of  special  importance  in  Washington 
and  British  Columbia.  There  it  is  reported  as  blooming  during  the  last  half 
of  June  and  well  into  July  and  as  furnishing  an  important  secondary  flow. 
According  to  H.  A.  Scullen  it  is  very  important  in  northern  Idaho  and  in 
Stevens  County,  Washington,  the  bees  work  upon  it  in  preference  to  white 
clover. 

Snowberry  is  a  close  relative  of  Indian  currant  and  is  illustrated  in 
connection  with  that  plant.     (See  Indian  Currant). 

SNOW-ON-THE-MOUNTAIN    (Euphorbia    marginata).      SPURGE. 

Snow-on-the-Mountain  is  a  showy  plant  easily  recognized  by  the  white 
margined  leaves.  It  is  native  from  Minnesota  to  Montana  and  south  to 
New  Mexico  and  Texas.  It  is  also  cultivated  for  the  peculiar  foliage. 
It  is  probably  nowhere  important  as  a  honey  plant,  and  is  of  special  inter- 
est from  the  fact  that  its  nectar  is  so  often  reported  as  poisonous.  (See 
Poisonous  Honey.) 


SNOWVINE  or  PEPPER-VINE  (Cissus  arborea). 

The  snowvine  is  a  climbing  vine  with  heart-shaped  leaves,  and  berries 
the  size  of  a  pea,  and  which  are  edible.     It  is  common  in  the  low  borders 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  237 

of  woods  and  along  streams  from  Virginia  to  southern  Illinois  and  south- 
ward to  Florida  and  eastern  Texas.  It  is  a  relative  of  the  cowitch.  (See 
Cowitch).  It  is  common  in  Alabama  and  Georgia  from  the  central  belt  to 
the  coast  plain,  where  it  begins  to  bloom  in  June.  It  is  reported  as  being 
the  source  of  considerable  honey  of  fair  quality. 

SOAPBERRY,  see   Wild   China. 

SOAPBUSH   (Guaiacum  angustifolium). 

The  soapbush  is  native  to  the  dry  lands  of  south  Texas  and  northern 
Mexico.  It  blooms  after  rains  in  both  spring  and  fall.  At  Crystal  City, 
Texas,  it  is  reported  as  the  source  of  the  first  honey  in  spring,  coming  in 
March.  Beekeepers  report  that  with  very  little  moisture  soapbush  can  be 
depended  upon  for  honey  and  that  it  yields  nectar  every  time  it  blooms. 
The  honey  is  of  fine  quality,  mild  flavor  and  light  color.  The  flow  lasts 
from  ten  to  fifteen  days.  (Fig.  126.)  The  soapbush  has  very  hard  wood, 
crooked  and  knotty  branches  and  in  places  becomes  a  small  tree  and  is 
known  as  lignum-vitae. 

SOLIDAGO,  see  Goldenrod. 

SORGHUM. 

The  sorghums  are  widely  planted  as  forage  crops.  They  yield  pollen  in 
great  abundance  and  at  times  honeydew  is  gathered  from  this  source,  also. 

SORREL-TREE,  see  Sourwood. 
SOULARD  CRAB  APPLE,  see  Crab  Apple. 
SOUR-GUM,  see   Tupelo. 
SOUR-TOP,  see  Blueberry. 

SOURWOOD    (Oxydendrum   arboreum). 

The  sourwood  tree  reaches  a  height  of  thirty  to  forty  feet  and  a  di- 
ameter of  twelve  inches,  on  high  lands,  but  seldom  exceeds  twenty  feet 
in  height  on  the  low  lands.  It  is  a  common  tree  from  West  Virginia  to 
north  Georgia  and  west  to  Arkansas.  The  white  flowers  grow  in  racemes 
and  appear  in  July.  It  is  sometimes  called  sorrel  tree,  because  of  the 
acidity  of  its  leaves.  The  wood  is  soft  and  is  not  of  much  value  except 
for  light  fuel. 

Sourwood  honey  ranks  high,  both  in  quality  and  in  quantity  of  yield. 
Many  people  regard  it  as  the  finest  honey  produced  in  America.  It  is 
light  in  color,  of  heavy  body,  fine  flavor  and  slow  to  granulate.  The  bloom 
lasts  from  two  to  three  weeks  and  comes  in  mid-summer,  when  bees  have 
ample  time  to  build  up  to  maximum  strength  for  the  flow.  Although  sour- 
wood honey  is  produced  in  limited  areas  in  several  States.  North  Carolina 
and  eastern  Tennessee  probably  contain  the  finest  forests  and  remarkable 
yields  are  sometimes  reported  in  this  region.  The  crop  from  this  source 
seldom  fails  and  it  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  dependable  sources  of 
nectar.     A    lady    beekeeper,    writing   from    North    Carolina,    stated    in    the 


238  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

American  Bee  Journal  that  she  had  never  known  it  to  fail.  An  average 
of  as  high  as  75  pounds  per  colony  from  sourwood  has  been  reported  and 
the  local  demand  usually  takes  it  all  at  prices  above  the  open  market. 

SOUTH   CAROLINA— Honey  Sources   of. 

Willows,  fruit  blossoms,  including  such  wild  fruits  as  hawthorne,  huck- 
leberry and  blackberry,  furnish  abundant  nectar  for  early  spring.  Tulip- 
tree,  sourwood  and  clover,  persimmon,  black-gum  and  holly  are  all  good 
sources  of  nectar.  Cotton  may  be  expected  to  yield  also  on  suitable  soils. 
(See  also  North  Carolina  and  Georgia  for  a  longer  list  of  plants  likely  to 
be  of  value  in  this  State.) 

SOUTH  DAKOTA— Honey  Sources  of. 

The  best  beekeeping  territory  in  South  Dakota  is  in  the  sweet  clover 
districts  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  State.  In  this  region  large  crops 
of   fine  honey  are   secured. 

Maples  and  willows,  dandelions  and  fruit  blossoms  start  the  bees  off 
in  the  spring.  White  clover  and  alsike  both  yield  well  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  State.  Sweet  clover  is  important  wherever  grown  and  alfalfa  is 
valuable  in  some  localities.  Heartsease  is  the  principal  source  of  honey  in 
late  fall.  There  are  also  many  minor  sources,  such  as  are  common  to 
the   Middle  West. 

SOUTHERN  BUCKTHORN,  see  Coma. 
SOUTHERN  CRAB  APPLE,  see  Crab  Apple. 

SOW  THISTLE  (Sonchus). 

The  sow  thistles  are  weeds  which  are  widely  distributed  from  eastern 
Canada  to  Florida  and  from  British  Columbia  to  California.  They  are  re- 
ported as  valuable  in  east  Texas,  and  Richter  lists  two  species  as  yielding 
nectar  in  California.     Probably  seldom  important. 

SPANISH  BAYONET,  see  Yucca. 
SPANISH  DAGGER,  see  Yucca. 

SPANISH  NEEDLE  (Bidens). 

The  Spanish  needles,  also  known  as  bootjacks,  beggar  ticks,  stick 
tights  and  marigolds,  are  very  widely  distributed  plants,  and  are  of  in- 
terest to  the  beekeepers  from  Nova  Scotia  to  California.  Most  of  the  spe- 
cies are  weeds  growing  commonly  on  low  and  swampy  lands.  Not  all  of 
them  produce  honey  in  appreciable  quantity,  and  possibly  some  of  them  are 
not  sought  by  the  bees  at  all.  Figure  128  shows  Bidens  aristosa,  which  has 
an  attractive  yellow  flower  and  is  most  frequently  mentioned  as  a  source 
of  honey.  This  is  particularly  valuable  on  the  lowlands  along  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  Missouri  Rivers.  During  the  seasons  of  1915  and  1919  much 
honey  was  gathered  from  it. 

Two  species  are  reported  among  the  honey  plants  of  California  by 
Richter,  B.  frondosa  and  B.  pilosa.    The  former  is  one  of  the  most  widely- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  239 

distributed  species  and  closely  resembles  the  one  shown,  but  has  a  wider 
leaf.  Frondosa  is  seldom  reported  as  yielding  nectar,  and  it  is  of  doubtful 
value  to  the  beekeeper. 

Figure  127  shows  the  western  bur-marigold  (B.  involucrata),  which  oc- 
curs from  Illinois  and  Iowa  south  to  Texas  and  Louisiana.  This  is  re- 
ported as  a  good  honey  plant.  This  flower  has  no  colored  corolla,  but  is 
surrounded  by  greenish  rays.     August  is  the  month  of  flowering  with  this 


Fig.   127.     Western  bur  marigold. 
species.     The  Spanish  needles  are  all  late  bloomers,  and  where  they  occur 
yield  nectar,  and  add  something  to  the  fall  honey  flow. 

SPARKLE-BERRY,  see   Farkle-Berry. 
SPICEWOOD,    see    Dogwood. 

SPIDER   PLANT   (Cleome   spinosa). 

The  spider  plant  is  a  close  relative  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  bee  plant 
and  very  similar  in  habit.  The  spider  plant  had  quite  a  boom  among  bee- 
keepers of  a  few  years  ago.  The  seed  was  sold  quite  generally  and  planted 
in  gardens,  but  as  it  is  of  no  value  except  for  honey  and  as  an  ornamental, 
its  popularity  soon  declined  and  it  is  seldom  mentioned  of  late.  It  secretes 
nectar  abundantly  and  the  bees  work  upon  it  freely  just  at  nightfall,  and 
again  in  early  morning.  It  is  a  native  of  the  tropics  and  has  escaped  and 
run  wild  in  many  places  from  North  Carolina  to  Arkansas  and  Louisiana. 
16 


240 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Much  has  been  written  about  the  remarkable  secretion  by  this  plant 
and  the  excitement  it  causes  among  the  bees.  Under  favorable  conditions 
i!  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  honey  plants  and,  if  sufficiently  common, 
would  no  doubt  be  the  source  of  large  quantities  of  surplus  honey.  There 
are  reports  to  the  effect  that  spider  plant  grows  abundantly  in  neglected 
fields  in  some  localities  in  southeastern  Missouri  and  is  there  important. 
It  is  said  to  require  a  rich  soil  for  best  results  in  nectar  secretion.  A 
single  blossom  secretes  nectar  so  freely  that  a  bee  often  finds  a  drop  larger 
than  it  can  carry  at  one  load. 


Fig. 


Spanish   needle    (i 


SPIKEWEED    (Centromadia    pungens). 

Spikeweed  is   a  common  plant   in   California,  where   its  range   is  given 
by  Jepson  as  follows  : 

"Abundant  on  the  plains  of  the  lower  San  Joaquin  southward  to 
southern  California  and  westward  to  Walnut  Creek  and  Alameda.  On 
the  alkaline  plains  of  the  upper  San  Joaquin  this  species  covers  tens 
of  thousands  of  acres  and  often  forms  thickets  four  or  five  feet  high. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  low,  more  or  less  alkaline  plains  of  Solano  County 
and  forms  extensive  colonies  in  summer  fields.  Extermination  is  often 
accomplished  by  means  of  bands  of  sheep,  which  leave  the  fields  per- 
fectly clean  and  destitute  of  this  spikeweed  pest. — Flora  of  Western 
Middle  California. 
According  to  Richter,  carloads  of  honey  from  spikeweed  are  shipped 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


241 


annually  from  Fresno  County,  the  honey  being  of  amber  color,  good  qual- 
ity and  quick  to  granulate.  He  states  that  other  plants  are  replacing  spike- 
weed  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  no  longer  of  the  importance  which  it 
was  in  the  past. 

SPOON-WOOD,  see  Laurel. 


SPRING   BEAUTY    (Claytonia  Virginica). 

The  spring  beauty  is  one  of  the  early  spring  flowers  common  in  open 
woodlands  from  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  to  Ontario,  Saskatche- 
wan and  Alaska  and  from  New  England  west  to  Minnesota  and  Nebraska 
and  south  to  Georgia  and  Arkansas.  Appearing  so  early  in  spring  it  is 
much  sought  by  the  bees  at  a  time  when  there  is  little  of  either  nectar  or 
pollen  available.  At  a  later  season  it  would  be  of  such  slight  value  as  to 
be  hardly  worthy  of  notice  on  the  part  of  the  beekeeper.  Figure  129  shows 
a  bee  on  the  blossom  of  a  spring  beauty. 


SPRUCE  (Picea  abies). 

For  years  past  there  has  been  an  occasional  mention  in  our  beekeep- 
ing literature  of  spruce  honey,  or  of  bees  working  on  spruce.  As  far  as  the 
writer  has  been  able  to  ascertain  this  is  true  only  of  the  Norway  spruce. 
Since  the  Norway  spruce  is  not  a  native  of  this  country,  it  is  seldom  found 


242 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


in  considerable  numbers  except  in  the  vicinity  of  cities,  where  it  is  planted 
freely  for  ornament.     (Fig.  130.) 

It  was  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  at  Guelph  that  the  writer 
first  saw  the  bees  working  on  spruce  to  any  extent.  It  was  about  June  12, 
and  the  bees  were  humming  through  these  trees  in  large  numbers.     There 


The  Norway  spruce  is  the  source  of  honeydew. 


are  hundreds  of  these  trees  about  the  college  grounds,  and  considerable 
honeydew  seemed  to  be  coming  to  the  college  apiary  from  this  source. 
Honeydew  is  seldom  desirable,  as  it  is  usually  of  poor  quality  and  only 
serves  to  spoil  the  quality  of  good  honey.  However,  this  spruce  honey- 
dew seemed  to  be  of  rather  better  quality  than  is  generally  the  case  with 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


243 


honeydew,  and,  as  it  came  ahead  of  the  clover  flow,  was  probably  nearly  all 
consumed  for  brood  rearing. 

For  a  time  the  writer  was  puzzled  to  know  whether  the  bees  were 
getting  an  exudation  of  sap  from  the  tree,  or  were  in  fact  getting  honey- 
dew.  They  were  working  on  what  appeared  at  first  sight  to  be  buds  at  the 
base  of  the  new  growth,  but  which  under  the  microscope  proved  to  be  in- 
sects   identified   as    Physokermes   picea. 

SPURGE,  see   Snow-on-the-Mountain. 


Fig. 


Yellow   star   thistle. 


SQUASH    (Curcurbita   maxim),   also    (C.   moschata). 

Squashes  are  widely  cultivated  for  food.  There  are  numerous  varie- 
ties, but  all  are  valuable  sources  of  pollen  and  nectar.  They  secrete  nectar 
treely,  and  where  sufficiently  abundant,  a  considerable  quantity  of  honey 
is  stored. 

STAR  THISTLE  or  KNAPWEED   (Centaurea).     BARNABY'S   THISTLE. 

There  are  several  species  of  star  thistles  or  knapweeds  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  yellow  star  thistle  (Centaurea  solstitialis)  (Fig.  131)  is  an 
introduced  species  from  Europe  that  occurs  from  Massachusetts  and  On- 
tario, west  to  Iowa.  It  is  also  common  in  parts  of  California.  It  is  only 
from  the  latter  State  that  it  is  reported  as  an  important  honey  plant. 
According  to  C.  D.  Stuart  (American  Bee  Journal,  page  340,  October,  1918), 


244  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

it  furnishes  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  Butte  County,  California's  honey 
crop,  an  average  of  about  sixty  tons.  Concerning  the  plant  he  writes  as 
follows : 

"Star  thistle  begins  to  bloom  about  the  first  of  July  and  continues 
till  frost,  which  usually  comes  between  October  1  and  November  1. 
The  yield  of  nectar  is  slow  but  continuous.  If  it  is  stopped  by  drought 
it  will  start  yielding  nectar  again  after  a  rain.  The  plant  has  the  fac- 
ulty of  existing  in  arid  soils  for  long  periods  of  drought,  and  when 
apparently  dried  up,  it  will  start  to  grow  and  blossom  after  a  rain. 
Some  cattle  growers  find  that  thistle  hay  can  be  fed  profitably  when 
cut  and  dried  like  other  hay,  if  it  is  moistened  before  feeding.  The 
dampening  of  the  fodder  takes  the  sting  out  of  the  leaves  and  blos- 
soms. 

"Star-thistle  honey  is  heavy-bodied,  white,  almost  cloying  in  its 
sweetness  as  orange,  and  has  a  greenish  yellow  tinge,  like  olive  oil. 
It  is  considered  by  large  buyers  equal  in  quality  to  any  white  honey  in 
the  State,  and  with  the  price  at  two  cents  a  pound  more  than  light 
amber  of  the  alfalfa  type,  and  still  rising,  beemen  in  northern  Cali- 
fornia  should  worry." 

Richter  lists  Napa-thistle  or  tocalote  (Centaurea  melitensis)  as  yield- 
ing light  amber  honey  of  good  flavor  and  fair  body  in  Sacramento  County, 
from  May  15  to  June  15.  It  is  regarded  as  a  bad  weed  and  is  abundant 
everywhere  in  fields  and  pastures.  Like  the  foregoing,  it  has  been  dissem- 
inated with  seed  grain  and  grass  seed.  According  to  Richter,  it  does  not 
yield  nectar  in  southern  California.  Scholl  lists  American  knapweed  (Cen- 
taurea Americana)  as  not  important  in  Texas. 

STICKLEAF,  see  Mentzelia. 

STICK-TIGHT,   see   Spanish   Needle. 

STINKING   CLOVER,   see    Rocky    Mountain    Bee    Plant. 

STINKWEED,  see  Jackass  Clover. 

STONECROP    (Sedum   pulchellum). 

Stonecrop  is  common  from  Virginia  to  Arkansas  and  south  to  Georgia. 
It  is  abundant  in  many  localities  and  is  reported  to  be  a  valuable  honey 
plant  in  the  South. 

STORK'S   BILL,  see  Pin  Clover. 

STRAWBERRY   (Fragaria). 

The  wild  strawberries  are  seldom  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  of  much 
value  to  the  bees,  but  the  cultivated  varieties  are  grown  in  large  planta- 
tions and  are  the  source  of  both  pollen  and  nectar.  They  bloom  in  early 
spring,  for  the  most  part,  although  some  of  the  everbearing  varieties  con- 
tinue to  blossom  through  the  summer.  Strawberries,  like  most  other 
fruits  are  of  principal  value  to  stimulate  early  brood  rearing. 

The  bees  are  very  important  to  the  strawberry  growers,  as  many  va- 
rieties of  strawberries  are  not  self-pollinating  or  are  deficient  in  stamens. 
The  bees  carry  the  pollen  from  the  staminate  blossoms  to  the  pistils  of  the 
incomplete  flowers. 

STRINGY   BARK,  see   Eucalyptus. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  245 

SUGAR  GUM,  see  Eucalyptus. 

SWEET  CLOVER  (Melilotus). 

There  are  probably  twenty  species  of  melilotus  native  to  the  temper- 
ate  regions   of   Europe   and   western   Asia.     Several   have   been    introduced 


Fig.   132.     Blossoms  of  white  sweet  clover   {Melilotus  alba.) 


into  America.  Of  these,  two  species,  the  white  sweet  clover  (Melilotus 
alba)  and  the  yellow  sweet  clover  (Melilotus  officinalis)  are  valuable 
plants  and  are  widely  distributed.  The  yellow  variety  blooms  about  two 
weeks  earlier  than  the  white  and  where  both  are  present  a  long  honey 
flow  may  be  expected. 

Sweet  clover  reaches  the  highest  development  in  the  secretion  of  nec- 
tar in  the  hot,  dry  summer  climate  of  the  plains  region  between  the  Missis- 


246  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

sippi  River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  the  East,  the  surplus  secured 
from  this  plant  has  been  disappointing,  and  eastern  men  insist  that  sweet 
clover  is  overrated  as  a  honey  plant.  However,  those  who  have  seen  the 
big  flows  that  are  frequent  along  the  Missouri  River  and  westward  are 
enthusiastic  in  its  praise.  In  the  region  about  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  it  is 
grown  extensively  as  a  farm  crop.  In  this  section  an  average  of  200  pounds 
surplus  per  colony  from  sweet  clover  is  not  uncommon.  On  the  limestone 
soils  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  it  also  yields  freely  and  large  yields  are 
reported.  In  the  irrigated  regions  of  the  West  it  is  of  great  importance 
and  beekeepers  who  ship  sweet  clover  honey  in  carlots  are  not  uncommon. 
The  quality  of  the  honey  is  excellent.  It  is  light  in  color  and  mild  in 
flavor,  although  slightly  peppery  to  the  taste.  It  granulates  more  readily 
than  white  clover,  but  is  regarded  as  of  number  one  quality  in  the  prin- 
cipal markets. 

Sweet  Clover  as  a  Farm  Crop 

When  our  older  readers  were  beginners  in  the  beekeeping  business  it 
was  a  popular  thing  for  the  beekeepers  to  buy  sweet  clover  seed  and 
stealthily  sow  it  along  the  roadsides.  So  general  was  this  practiced  that 
whenever  the  plant  appeared  in  a  new  locality  it  was  generally  charged  up 
to  the  beekeepers  living  nearby.  So  great  was  the  prejudice  against  the 
plant  that  much  ill-feeling  developed  in  some  places  because  of  it.  It  even 
went  so  far  that  in  some  States  it  was  placed  on  the  list  of  noxious  weeds 
and  its  eradication  required  by  law.  When  Frank  Coverdale,  well-known 
Iowa  farmer  who  did  so  much  to  popularize  sweet  clover,  first  sowed  it  in 
his  own  fields,  neighbors  called  on  the  county  attorney  to  enquire  whether 
he  could  not  be  prosecuted  for  sowing  weed  seed.  For  a  generation  the 
beekeepers  kept  up  the  fight,  and  constantly  preached  that  sweet  clover 
was  not  a  weed,  but  a  valuable  forage  plant.  It  remained  for  men  like 
Coverdale,  who  were  both  beekeepers  and  farmers,  to  prove  the  assertion 
and  convince  the  unwilling  public,  by  making  as  much  profit  from  sweet 
clover  pasture  for  forage  as  the  neighbors  could  make  from  other  farm 
crops. 

It  was  on  poor  lands  which  had  been  worn  out  by  bad  tillage,  that 
the  plant  made  the  best  showing.  When  lands  which  had  been  lying  idle, 
because  no  other  crop  could  be  raised  profitably,  were  made  to  produce 
good  yields  of  milk,  butter  and  beef  from  sweet  clover,  the  neighbors  were 
inclined  to  give  it  a  trial  on  their  own  poor  lands.  The  change  in  senti- 
ment has  been  very  marked  during  the  past  few  years  and  now  the  de- 
mand for  sweet  clover  seed  is  greater  than  the  supply,  and  will  continue  so 
for  several  years,  since  the  area  where  it  is  being  grown  is  constantly  be- 
ing enlarged.  There  are  large  areas  where  sweet  clover  is  grown  generally 
as  a  farm  crop,  in  Kentucky,  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  The  increased  acreage 
of  this  plant  will  double  the  possibilities  of  honey  production  in  most  any 
locality,  and  in  numerous  instances  will  treble  and  quadruple  it.  In  the 
early  years  of  his  experience,  Coverdale  kept  bees  in  several  outapiaries, 
so  that  much  travel  back  and  forth  was  necessary.  Since  sweet  clover  has 
become  so  generally  grown  in  his  locality,  he  is  able  to  keep  three  hundred 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  247 

colonies  in  one  yard  in  his  orchard,  where  they  are  under  his  immediate 
care  at  all  times.  After  traveling  over  much  of  the  Central  West,  it  has 
become  apparent  to  the  author  that  within  a  few  years  the  beekeeping 
possibilities  of  parts  of  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  South  Dakota  will  be  almost 
inexhaustible  because  of  the  increase  of  this  plant.  On  visiting  Falmouth, 
Ky.,  I  was  amazed  at  the  stories  they  told  of  what  sweet  clover  had  done 
for  that  region.  One  of  the  pioneer  growers  was  E.  E.  Barton,  and  his 
experience  with  it  sounded  like  a  fairy  tale.  Mr.  Barton  said  that  follow- 
ing the  civil  war,  most  of  Pendleton  County  was  given  over  to  tobacco 
growing,  with  little  live  stock,  and  not  much  rotation  of  crops.  It  was  a 
hill  country,  and  although  it  had  a  fertile  soil  over  a  clay  subsoil,  the 
heavy  rains  soon  washed  away  the  shallow  surface  soil,  and  one  farm  after 
another  was  abandoned.  Hundreds  of  farms  were  abandoned,  and  many 
of  them  were  sold  for  taxes,  because  no  buyers  could  be  found.  More  than 
a  third  of  the  population  left  the  county,  and  the  farmers  who  remained 
had  hard  lines  to  make  ends  meet.  Sweet  clover  was  stealthily  sowed, 
probably  by  beekeepers  intent  on  increasing  the  bee  pasturage.  At  first 
it  was  regarded  with  disfavor  and  fought  as  a  dangerous  weed. 

Mr.  Barton  came  into  possession  of  a  farm,  somewhat  against  his  will, 
because  the  owner  could  not  pay  the  mortgage.  He  tried  renting  it,  and 
the  tenant  was  unable  to  make  a  living,  much  less  pay  the  rent.  After  it 
had  been  abandoned,  he  went  to  great  trouble  to  keep  down  the  weeds,  es- 
pecially sweet  clover.  Then  came  a  year  of  drought,  when  there  was  very 
little  feed  for  the  cattle,  and  they  were  turned  into  the  roads  to  graze. 
Even  there  there  was  but  little  except  the  sweet  clover,  which  was  by  this 
time  rather  common  along  the  roadsides.  It  was  soon  noticed  that  the 
cows  were  eating  the  sweet  clover  with  relish  and  doing  well.  Then  some- 
body tried  an  experiment  by  sowing  it  in  a  field.  It  thrived,  the  cows  liked 
it,  and  the  milk  flow  was  increased.  Mr.  Barton  by  this  time  was  quite 
ready  to  profit  by  the  experience,  and  within  five  years  the  farm  which 
would  not  grow  grass  was  producing  good  crops.  He  bought  more  aban- 
doned farms  and  sowed  them  to  sweet  clover,  and  his  neighbors  began  to 
do  likewise.  One  by  one  the  farmers  came  back  to  their  abandoned  farms, 
new  settlers  came  in,  and  everybody  began  to  grow  sweet  clover.  Now 
there  are  fifty  thousand  acres  of  it  in  that  county.  Ask  any  farmer  you 
meet  on  the  streets  of  Falmouth  what  he  thinks  of  sweet  clover  and  he 
will  tell  you  such  tales  of  rebuilt  fortunes  from  a  combination  of  dairy 
cows  and  sweet  clover  as  you  never  expect  to  hear.  There  are  now  shipped 
from  the  county  about  half  a  million  pounds  of  seed  yearly,  besides  thou- 
sands of  dollars'  worth  of  dairy  products  every  week.  They  find  that  an 
average  of  300  to  600  pounds  of  hulled  seed  per  acre  can  be  secured  from 
the  white  variety  and  500  to  700  pounds  of  the  yellow.  An  average  yield  of 
from  $40  to  $100  per  acre  is  the  return  from  the  sweet  clover,  according  to 
local  reports  picked  up  on  the  streets.  Now  one  finds  evidences  of  pros- 
perity on  every  hand.  The  farmers  have  fine  homes,  automobiles,  and 
money  in  the  bank. 

Soil   Requirements. 

There  is  no  forage  plant  that  will  succeed  on  such  a  wide  range  of  soil 


248  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

conditions  as  will  sweet  clover.  It  will  succeed  under  unfavorable  condi- 
tions on  the  heaviest  clays  and  on  light  sand.  It  will  grow  on  hardpan 
and  on  gravelly  and  stony  land  unsuited  for  general  cultivation.  It  does 
well  on  soils  too  wet  for  either  alfalfa  or  red  clover  and  on  soils  so  dry 
that  neither  of  these  will  succeed.  It  will  grow  on  land  so  poor  and  devoid 
of  humus  that  no  other  clover  or  grass  will  grow.  It  is  the  greatest  soil 
builder  known,  and  now  that  the  public  has  finally  accepted  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  a  noxious  weed,  it  will  shortly  be  used  to  redeem  untold  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  otherwise  waste  land.  It  grows  all  the  way  from  sea 
level  to  the  mountain  sides,  and  is  spreading  in  the  semi-arid  sections  of 
Colorado  and  other  Western  States,  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  very  light. 

In  the  October,  1917,  number  of  the  American  Bee  Journal  has  been 
told  the  story  of  the  sweet  clover  region  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  In 
those  States  sweet  clover  has  spread  over  thousands  of  acres  of  land  which 
had  been  abandoned  for  agricultural  purposes;  and  it  is  not  only  furnish- 
ing abundant  pasturage  to  the  bees,  but  is  restoring  the  fertility  of  these 
worn-out  plantations. 

The  growth  of  the  plant,  however,  is  no  longer  confined  to  the  road- 
sides and  worn-out  fields,  but  farmers  are  growing  it  successfully  and 
profitably  on  lands  worth  $300  per  acre  in  Iowa  and  Illinois,  because  it 
pays  them  to  do  so.  In  some  cases  the  railroad  companies  have  discov- 
ered that  sweet  clover  growing  along  the  right  of  way  is  the  best  possi- 
ble insurance  against  erosion  of  the  roadbed.  A  heavy  growth  of  sweet 
clover  protects  the  banks  from  the  washing  of  heavy  rains,  as  no  other 
plant  will  do.  In  places,  one  can  see  a  continuous  strip  of  sweet  clover 
for  miles  and  miles  along  the  railroads.  It  would  seem  the  part  of  wis- 
dom for  the  beekeepers'  associations  to  bring  this  fact  to  the  attention  of 
the  men  in  charge  of  keeping  the  lines  in  repair  wherever  possible.  Once 
established  along  the  railroads,  it  is  bound  to  spread  more  or  less  along 
the  byroads  and  into  the  fields,  thus  increasing  the  supply  of  forage  within 
reach  of  the  bees. 

One  of  the  most  useful  purposes  which  sweet  clover  serves  is  to 
smother  out  obnoxious  weeds.  So  persistent  is  the  plant  where  sowed  in 
waste  places  that  there  are  few  weeds  which  can  compete  with  it.  Where 
bad  weeds  are  present  in  old  lots,  along  roadsides,  etc.,  the  easiest  way  to 
eradicate  them  is  by  sowing  sweet  clover  freely.  Within  a  few  years  the 
sweet  clover  will  generally  crowd  them  out.  In  spite  of  this  fact,  sweet 
clover  itself  is  one  of  the  easiest  plants  to  destroy.  Since  it  only  lives  two 
years  and  must  come  again  from  the  seed  after  that  time,  all  that  is  neces- 
sary to  clear  the  ground  of  sweet  clover  is  to  cut  it  low  when  in  blossom 
and  before  the  seeds  are  formed. 

Where  there  is  difficulty  in  establishing  alfalfa,  sweet  clover  is  often 
grown  in  advance  to  establish  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria,  which  are 
peculiar  to  the  leguminous  plants.  Following  sweet  clover,  there  is  usually 
little  difficulty  in  getting  the  alfalfa  to  grow,  if  the  seed  bed  is  carefully 
prepared.  However,  many  farmers  who  have  been  growing  both  plants,  are 
of  the  opinion  that  sweet  clover  is  the  more  profitable  of  the  two,  and  that 
it  can  be  handled  successfully  with  less  difficulty. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  249 

There  is  no  pasture  crop  which  will  support  as  many  cattle  or  other 
live  stock  as  will  sweet  clover  during  the  second  season  of  its  growth.  A 
small  experimental  plot  of  little  more  than  an  acre  yielded  two  big  loads 
of  hay.  The  plants  were  permitted  to  get  a  good  start  after  the  hay  was 
cut  before  pasturing,  then  two  cows  and  a  horse  were  turned  in  for  the 
rest  of  the  season.  In  addition  to  furnishing  an  abundant  pasture  for 
three,  more  than  twenty  bags  of  seed  were  secured.  Allowing  $15  per  ton 
for  hay,  $1  a  month  per  head  for  pasture,  and  $3  a  bag  for  the  seed,  all 
very  conservative  figures,  the  crop  returned  about  $96  per  acre.  While  this 
small- plot  was  experimental,  there  are  numerous  farmers  who  have  re- 
ceived more  than  $100  an  acre  for  seed  alone. 

Cultural    Requirements. 

It  frequently  happens  that,  having  seen  sweet  clover  growing  along 
the  roadsides,  on  gravelly  banks  and  other  unpromising  situations,  we  are 
surprised  to  fail  in  getting  a  stand  in  a  well  prepared  field.  Sweet  clover 
requires  a  firm  seed  bed,  and  will  not  succeed  on  land  where  the  soil  has 
been  deeply  stirred  and  left  in  a  loose  condition.  It  is  well  to  scratch 
the  surface  with  a  tool  that  does  not  penetrate  deeply,  leaving  the  surface 
loose  for  an  inch  or  so,  and  compact  below.  While  it  will  succeed  on  a 
great  variety  of  soils,  it  requires  that  they  be  in  a  well  settled  condition 
and  not  freshly  plowed  to  a  depth  of  several  inches,  such  as  best  suits 
many  forage  plants.  This  condition  probably  accounts  for  more  failures 
in  getting  a  stand  of  sweet  clover  than  any  other  cause. 

Sowing  the  seed  on  top  of  the  ground  or  on  the  snow  in  winter,  will 
often  secure  a  good  stand  with  no  cultivation  at  all.  Good  results  often 
come  from  sowing  it  with  small  grain  in  spring,  on  land  that  has  been  cul- 
tivated the  previous  season.  Some  succeed  by  sowing  after  the  last  cul- 
tivation of  corn,  the  seed  germinating  to  some  extent  the  same  season, 
while  some  does  not  sprout  until  the  following  spring.  The  ideal  condition 
is  to  cover  the  seed  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  with  finely  pulverized  soil, 
with  a  firm  soil  underneath. 

Time   of  Sowing. 

Sweet  clover  may  be  sowed  in  the  winter  or  early  spring,  as  above 
stated,  or  at  any  time  from  March  until  August.  It  should  not  be  seeded 
when  it  is  likely  to  start  so  late  that  it  will  not  have  time  to  establish  it- 
self firmly  before  winter.  Under  the  different  conditions  of  soil  and  climate 
of  this  great  country,  it  is  difficult  to  give  general  directions  that  will  ap- 
ply  everywhere. 

The  time  of  sowing  will  depend  much  upon  the  manner  in  which  the 
crop  is  to  be  handled.  Where  it  is  desired  to  sow  the  seed  on  old  mead- 
ows or  pastures  without  plowing,  it  will  probably  be  best  to  scatter  it  in 
winter  or  early  spring.  The  freezing  and  thawing  have  a  tendency  to 
soften  the  hard  coat  of  the  seed,  as  well  as  to  cover  it  with  earth.  As  a 
field  crop,  the  writer's  limited  experience  would  indicate  that  spring 
sowing,  with  a  nurse  crop  that  can  be  cut  early,  will  be  best,  though  win- 
ter seeding  on  stubble  should  bring  good  results. 


250  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

There  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  amount  of  seed 
to  sow.  Where  it  is  used  to  thicken  up  meadows  or  pastures  a  smaller 
amount  is  needed  than  where  sown  as  a  field  crop  on  newly  prepared  land. 
Some  growers  say  that  4  pounds  of  good  unhulled  seed  per  acre  is  suffi- 
cient to  sow  on  grass  lands.  As  high  as  20  pounds  of  hulled  seed  per  acre 
is  advocated  by  some  for  a  field  crop.  The  seed  covering  is  very  hard,  and, 
unless  treated,  only  about  half  of  it  will  grow  the  first  year.  If  the  seed 
is  scarified,  the  hard  coat  is  scratched  until  it  germinates  readily,  and 
much  less  seed  is  necessary  to  secure  a  stand  than  otherwise.  Ten  pounds 
of  hulled  and  scarified  seed  per  acre  should  be  sufficient  on  good  land. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  get  a  stand  on  old  land  which  is  deficient  in 
lime,  for  lack  of  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria  that  thrive  on  the  roots 
of  clovers.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  treat  a  small  area  with  a  good 
coat  of  manure,  and  sometimes  with  crushed  lime.  After  the  sweet  clover 
is  growing  well  on  this  land  the  area  can  be  gradually  extended. 

Utilizing   the  Crop. 

Probably  there  is  no  forage  crop  which  will  furnish  as  much  pasture 
per  acre  as  will  sweet  clover  in  its  second  year  of  growth.  It  should  be  al- 
lowed to  get  a  good  start  in  spring  before  stock  is  turned  in,  and  the  area 
should  be  sufficiently  large  for  the  animals  thus  kept.  Cattle,  hogs  and 
horses  all  eat  it  with  relish  after  they  become  familiar  with  it,  and  thrive 
equally  on  it.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  pasture  the  crop  during  the  first 
part  of  the  second  season  and  then  to  turn  the  stock  off  and  harvest  a 
seed  crop.  The  writer  has  harvested  a  very  good  crop  of  seed  from  a  lim- 
ited area,  which  was  pastured  lightly  through  the  entire  summer  until  the 
crop  was  cut.  Of  course,  it  is  not  possible  to  pasture  heavily  after  mid- 
summer, and  still  secure  a  good  crop  of  seed. 

Sweet  clover  makes  a  good  quality  of  hay  if  cut  at  the  proper  time  and 
well  cured.  If  a  seed  crop  is  to  be  cut,  the  first  crop  of  the  second  season 
may  be  cured  for  hay  by  cuttting  high  enough  to  leave  some  of  the  small 
branches  on  the  lower  part  of  the  stem.  If  cut  too  low  at  this  time  the 
plants  will  die.  Sweet  clover  hay  requires  more  time  to  cure  properly 
than  the  clovers  with  small  stems,  but  if  piled  in  small  cocks  it  is  little 
damaged,  even  though  some  rain  falls  on  is.  If  properly  cured  it  makes  a 
very  good  winter  feed.  When  cut  for  hay  it  should  be  mown  before  it  be- 
gins to  bloom  to  any  extent.  When  it  is  about  two  feet  high  is  the  right 
time.  The  first  year  it  may  be  cut  at  almost  any  time  the  grower  finds 
convenient. 

Some  practice  sowing  sweet  clover   with   early  oats,  cutting  the   oats 
with  a  high  stubble  and  later  getting  a  crop  of  hay. 
Saving  the   Seed. 

The  seed  crop  sometimes  fails  because  the  plants  are  too  thick  on  the 
ground.  They  spread  or  branch  widely  as  they  grow,  and  where  they  are 
too  thick  the  blossoms  may  drop  off  without  setting  a  full  crop  of  seed. 
Usually  best  results  are  obtained  where  a  first  crop  is  cut  for  hay  or  is 
pastured  until  mid-summer.  The  second  crop  does  not  grow  as  high  as 
the   first   would  do   if  permitted  to   seed,  thus   making  it   easier   to  handle. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  251 

Seed  is  obtained  only  the  second  year,  and  if  the  first  growth  of  that  year 
is  permitted  to  seed,  the  plants  will  die  when  cut,  so  that  only  the  one  crop 
can  be  obtained. 

The  seed  ripens  so  iregularly  that  it  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  just 
when  it  should  be  cut  in  order  to  save  the  largest  amount  of  seed.  At 
best,  much  of  it  will  shatter  off  and  be  lost,  since  the  first  to  ripen  will 
be  ready  while  there  is  still  a  large  amount  of  bloom.  The  most  seed  will 
be  secured  by  cutting  when  about  three-fourths  of  the  seed  pods  have 
turned  brown.  If  cut  sooner  there  will  be  too  many  blossoms  and  imma- 
ture seeds;  if  cut  later  too  much  of  the  ripe  seed  will  shatter  in  the  har- 
vesting. Usually  enough  seeds  shatter  off  to  reseed  the  land.  Some  grow- 
ers have  been  able  to  continue  the  same  land  in  sweet  clover  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  years  by  sowing  two  years  in  succession  to  begin  with.  After  the 
first  year  a  crop  of  seed  will  ripen   every  year. 

It  is  something  of  a  problem  to  harvest  the  seed  without  losing  a 
large  portion  of  it.  The  writer  has  cut  a  small  field  with  an  ordinary 
mower  when  the  plants  were  wet  with  dew,  and  immediately  raked  it 
into  windrows.  This  method  is  hardly  to  be  advised  where  the  seed  is  to 
be  hauled  to  a  threshing  machine,  since  more  of  the  seed  will  be  wasted 
than  where  it  is  bound  into  bundles.  This  small  field  was  threshed  by 
hand  with  forks.  A  large  sheet  of  canvas  was  laid  on  the  ground  and  the 
sweet  clover  carefully  lifted  on  it,  after  it  was  fully  dried.  By  beating 
with  the  forks  the  seed  was  readily  separated  from  the  stalks. 

The  ordinary  grain  binder  is  generally  used  for  this  purpose.  Where 
much  seed  is  to  be  harvested,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  some  special  pans 
to  catch  the  seed  that  shatter  off.  Corn  binders  have  been  used  in  some 
cases. 

When  threshed  with  a  grain  separator,  the  straw  is  broken  up  so 
much  that  it  makes  a  fair  forage  for  wintering  cattle  or  horses.  They 
will  not  eat  it  readily  when  threshed  by  hand,  since  the  straw  is  not  broken 
up   to  any   extent   and   the   dry   stalks   are   too  coarse   otherwise. 

Those  interested  in  this  subject  will  do  well  to  write  to  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  for  Farmer's  Bulletins  which  deal  with  different 
phases  of  the  culture  of  sweet  clover.  They  give  in  much  greater  detail 
information   that   space   will  not   permit   here. 

SWEET  FENNEL  (Foeniculum  vulgare). 

The  cultivated  fennel  from  Europe  has  become  naturalized  in  some 
places  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  in  Maryland  and  Virginia  and  other  East- 
ern States.  It  is  often  cultivated  in  gardens  in  many  localities.  Lovell  lists 
it  as  the  source  of  a  light  amber  honey. 

SUMAC  (RHUS). 

There  are  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  species  of  rhus  found  in 
Asia,  South  America  and  North  America.  There  are  fourteen  species  com- 
mon to  North  America.  The  red  or  scarlet  sumac,  shown  in  Figure  133 
(Rhus  glabra)  is  most  common,  being  found  from  New  England  west  to 
Saskatchewan,  Colorado  and  Arizona,  and  south  to  Florida  and  Louisiana. 


252 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


This  species  is  a  well-known  source  of  nectar  and  is  especially  important 
in  New  England. 

In  Texas,  Scholl  lists  the  dwarf  sumac  (Rhus  copallina)  as  yielding 
surplus  throughout  eastern  and  south  Texas.  He  also  lists  green  sumac 
(Rhus  virens)  as  attracting  the  bees  in  west  Texas. 

In  California,  Richter  lists  poison  oak  (Rhus  diversiloba)  as  yielding 
a  superior  grade  of  white  honey  which  granulates  readily.  He  also  reports 
laurel  sumac  (Rhus  laurina)  as  yielding  amber  honey  of  marked  odor  but 
fine  flavor. 


Fig. 


Leaves  and  berries  of   red 


The  poison  ivy  (Rhus  Toxicodendron),  common  to  the  Eastern  States 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  Wisconsin  and  south  to  Arkansas  and  Florida,  is  a 
vigorous  vine,  climbing  by  means  of  aerial  rootlets.  The  flowers  are  in- 
conspicuous, but  secrete  nectar  freely.  Where  sufficiently  abundant,  sur 
plus  may  be  expected  from  this   source. 

Some  species  of  sumac  may  be  expected  in  almost  every  section  of  the 
country  where  woodlands  are  common.  Nearly  all  species  seem  to  be  at- 
tractive to  the  bees,  although  it  is  only  in  limited  localities  that  honey  in 
surplus  quantity  is  reported.  The  honey  is  reputed  of  good  quality,  with 
mild  flavor.  In  the  east  the  honeyflow  from  sumac  is  sometimes  very  rapid 
and  a  liberal  quantity  of  surplus  secured,  at  times  as  high  as  100  pounds 
per  colony.    New  honey  from  this  source  is  somewhat  bitter  to  the  taste, 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


253 


but    this    characteristic    soon    disappears.      The    blooming    period    usually 
comes  in  July  and  lasts  for  two  or  three  weeks. 

The  dwarf  sumac  is  a  widely  distributed  species,  known  is  some  local- 
ities as  mountain  sumac.  It  is  common  in  the  Gulf  States  and  is  the  source 
of  honey  in  favored  localities. 

SUNFLOWER  (Helianthus). 

There  are  many  species  of  the  sunflowers,  some  of  which  may  be  found 
from   the  Atlantic   Coast    to   California,    and     from    Canada     to    the    Gulf. 


Fig.  134.     Wild  sunflowei 


(Fig.  134.)  They  are  tall,  coarse  weeds,  with  yellow  flowers.  Large  num- 
bers of  insects  of  many  species  may  be  found  on  the  sunflower  blossoms 
in  search  of  the  nectar.  Whenever  these  plants  are  sufficiently  abundant 
they  are  the  source  of  large  quantities  of  honey.  M.  H.  Mendleson,  of 
Ventura,  California,  reports  that  one  year,  following  a  wet  winter,  he  se- 
cured a  carload  of  surplus  honey  from  sunflowers,  although  such  yields  are 
extremely  rare  in  his  locality. 


254  AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 

The  cultivated  sunflowers  are  of  little  if  any  value  for  honey,  but  pro- 
duce seed  in  large  quantity,  which  is  valued  as  poultry  food.  The  Jerusa- 
lem artichoke  is  a  variety  of  sunflower  grown  for  the  tubers.  A  variety 
of  this  plant  grows  wild  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  States,  where  it 
is  regarded  as  a  bad  weed.  It  is  frequently  reported  as  a  good  honey 
plant. 

Many  of  the  wild  sunflowers  are  perennials,  persisting  for  many  years 
when  once  established.  They  are  commonly  to  be  found  along  wagon 
roads,  railroads  and  other  waste  places.  The  honey  is  amber  in  color  and 
strong  in   flavor. 

SUPPLE  JACK,  see  Rattan  Vine. 
SWEET  BAY,  see  Magnolia. 
SWAMP  LAUREL,  see  Magnolia. 
SWEET  PEPPERBUSH,  see  Pepperbush. 
SYMPHORICARPOS,  see  Indian  Currant. 


TOCALOTE,  see  Star  Thistle. 
TANGLEFOOT,  see  Aster,  also  Wild  Alfalfa. 
TARAXACUM,    see    Dandelion. 

TARWEED  (Hemizonia) 

There  are  about  eight  species  of  hemizonia  or  tarweeds  in  California. 
(Fig.  135.)  Of  these  Richter  lists  three  as  sources  of  honey  and  indicates 
that  others  may  also  be  of  importance.  The  tarweed  (Hemizonia  fasci- 
culata)  is  reported  as  common  over  a  large  part  of  southern  California, 
except  on  the  desert,  and  north  to  San  Francisco.  The  blooming  period 
is  given  from  June  to  August  and  the  honey  is  said  to  be  dark  amber  with 
strong  aroma.  He  states  that  it  is  an  excellent  producer,  especially  along 
the  coast  from  Santa  Barbara  to  San  Diego,  and  that  the  honey  is  largely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  chewing  tobacco  and  shoe  blacking. 

The  yellow  tarweed  (Hemizonia  virgata)  is  said  to  be  common  in  the 
interior  valleys  and  to  be  a  "heavy  and  consistent  yielder,  beginning  in 
August  and  lasting  for  about  twenty  clays,  according  to  Mr.  B.  B.  Hoga- 
boom  of  Elk  Grove."  The  honey  is  stated  to  be  of  light  yellow  color, 
good  flavor  and  heavy  body. 

The  coast  tarweed  (Hemizonia  corymbosa)  is  reported  as  yielding 
some  honey,  but  not  nearly  as  much  as  the  foregoing  species. 

In  Fresno  County  tarweed,  known  as  yellow-tops,  is  stated  to  bloom 
from  April  to  June  and  to  yield  an  occasional  surplus.  The  name  vinegar 
weed  is  sometimes  applied  to  tarweed  in  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. — Honey 
Plants  of  California. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


255 


TEASEL   (Dipsacus  fullonum).     FULLER'S   TEASEL. 

Fuller's  teasel  is  a  European  plant  which  was  for  a  time  cultivated  in 
this  country  for  the  heads  of  stiff  chaff  with  hooked  points,  used  for  rais- 
ing the  nap  upon  woolen  cloth.  Although  no  longer  mentioned  as  a  culti- 
vated plant,  it  has  escaped  from  cultivation  and  persists  as  a  weed  in 
some  places. 


\ 

V  '% 

# 

"V 

"*\ 

Pr^H 

1^  *  *'  {-* 

h,  .* .  * 

♦ 

**'  '  ^^K 

'4  , 

* 

^v\!u* 

'  ^  >- 

40 

*  ¥" 

Fig.  135.  Tarweed  blossoms. 
During  the  time  when  it  was  generally  cultivated  in  some  parts  of 
New  York,  the  late  G.  M.  Doolittle  secured  more  than  $1,000  per  year  from 
less  than  100  colonies,  credited  with  being  largely  from  teasel.  (American 
Bee  Journal,  July  21,  1886.)  The  high  price  of  teasel  in  the  market  led  to 
a  great  boom  for  a  few  years.  A  beekeeper  writing  in  the  American  Bee 
Journal  in  1878  stated  that  the  honey-yielding  qualities  of  teasel  were 
equal  to  basswood.  He  described  the  flavor  of  the  honey  as  excellent,  the 
color  white  and  transparent.  Reports  of  carloads  of  teasel  honey  shipped 
to  Thurber  &  Co.,  are  referred  to  and  the  statement  made  that  it  is  one  of 
the  greatest  honey-producing  plants  in  existence. 

In  the  same  Journal  (Aug.  18,  1886),  G.  M.  Doolittle  writes  a  long  arti- 
cle giving  the  history  and  cultivation  of  the  plant.  From  this  article  the 
following  extracts  are  taken: 

"Bees  work  on  teasel  all  hours  of  the  day,  and  no  matter  how  well 
basswood  may  yield  honey,  a  few  bees  will  be  found  at  work  on  teasel. 
A  bee  that  works  on  teasel  is  readily  distinguished  from  those  that 
work  on  basswood,  by  the  abdomen  being  covered  with  a  white  dust. 
Black  and  hybrid  bees  work  on  it  in  larger  proportion  than  the  Ital- 
ians." 
17 


256 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


"The  honey  from  teasel  is  very  thin  and  white, in  fact  the  whitest 
honey  I  ever  saw;  but  it  is  not  of  as  good  flavor  as  either  clover  or 
basswood.  This  thinness  of  the  nectar,  and  its  coming  just  when  bass 
wood  does  is  the  great  drawback  to  it.  From  careful  tests  I  should 
say  that  it  would  take  about  four  bee-loads  of  it  to  be  equal  to  one 
bee-load  of  nectar  gathered  from  basswood.  Coming  as  it  does  with 
basswood,  makes  it  of  no  great  advantage,  except  that  it  usually  lasts 
six  to  ten  days  after  basswood  is  gone. 

'Again,  my  bees  have  to  fly  two  to  ten  miles  to  get  this  nectar, 
as  I  am  on  the  southern  edge  of  the  teasel  belt.  According  to  those 
who  believe  bees  fly  only  \l/2  to  2  miles  for  honey,  I  should  not  get  any- 
thing from  teasel.  I  have  repeatedly  seen  my  bees  flying  to  and  from 
the  teasel  fields  from  our  church  door,  which  is  2l/2  miles  from  my 
apiary  in  line  with  the  fields. 

"As  to  what  proportion  of  my  honey  has  come  from  teasel  the 
past  fifteen  years,  I  should  say  about  one-tenth;  some  years  more  and 
some  years  not  a  single  pound.  In  1877  I  got  the  largest  crop,  while 
from  1878  to   1884  little   if   any  was   obtained." 

TENDRIL-BEARING  SMARTWEED,  see  Brunnichia. 


TENNESSEE— Honey  Flora  of. 

From   a   special   circular   sent   to   the   largest   beekeepers    of   the    State, 

asking  them  to  give   the   names  of   the   chief   nectar-producing   flowers   of 

their  section,  the  following  was  gained.     The  list  given  below  is  arranged 
in  order  of  importance  in  the  estimation  of  these  practical  beekeepers: 

White  clover.  Huckleberry. 

Poplar.  Whortleberry. 

Linden  or  basswood.  Elm. 

Sourwood.  Yellow-wood. 

Aster.  Daisy  fleabane. 

Black  locust.  Heartsease. 

Chestnut.  Cane. 

Goldenrod.  Crowfoot  moss. 

Stickweed.  Willows. 

Red  Clover.  Bitterweed. 

Persimmon.  Turnip. 

Alsike  clover.  Dandelion. 

Cowpeas  Strawberry. 

Tanglefoot  (aster).  Pea  wood. 

Sumac.  Cottonwood. 

Maple.  Cedar. 

Black  gum.  Blackberry. 

Alfalfa.  Catnip. 

Melilotus.  Fruit  berries. 

Cotton.  Aspen. 

Corn.  Raspberry. 

Wireweed.  Oak. 

Boneset.  Spanish   needle. 
Buckbrush. 
— G.  M.  Bentley,  Tennessee  Board  of  Entomology,  Bulletin  No.  9. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


257 


TEUCRIUM,  see  Germander. 


TEXAN  EBONY  (Siderocarpos  flexicaulis). 

Texan  ebony  is  a  beautiful  shrub  or  small  tree  common  to  the  Rio 
Grande  Valley  in  Texas  and  abundant  in  northern  Mexico.  In  the  vicinity 
of  Brownsville  it  is  regarded  as  a  valuable  source  of  nectar,  blooming  two 
or  three  times  during  the  year.  The  tree  only  blooms  two  or  three  days,  so 
the  flow  is  short,  usually  not  exceeding  a  week,  as  the  difference  in  bloom- 
ing time  between  different  trees  is  not  great.  The  honey  is  of  fine  quality 
and  light  in  color.  In  some  localities  beekeepers  report  that  the  flow  only 
lasts  about  two  days,  but  is  heavy  for  this  short  period.  Rains  bring  it 
into  bloom,  and  in  seasons  when  rains  are  frequent,  it  blooms  several 
times. 


rig. 


136.     A   clump   of   southwest   Texas   honey   plants:      agarita,    mesquite,    blackberry,   brazil- 
wood,  anaqua,   prickly   pear   and   huisache,   all   growing  together   near   Goliad. 


TEXAS— Honey   Sources  of. 

Texas  is  a  very  large  State,  with  a  great  diversity  of  soil  and  climatic 
conditions.  In  order  to  appreciate  its  vast  extent,  one  needs  to  study  the 
map  and  note  something  of  the  variety  of  climate  represented  within  her 
borders.  Orange,  Texas,  is  very  nearly  south  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  while 
El  Paso  is  further  west  than  Denver,  Colorado.  The  northern  line  is  near 
to  southern  Kansas,  while  Brownsville  is  a  long  distance  south  of  San 
Diego,  California.  One  might  describe  almost  any  condition  of  soil  and 
climate  with  which  he  is  familiar  in  any  part  of  the  United  States  and  say 


258  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

with  truth  that  it  is  like  Texas,  for  almost  every  condition  of  soil  or 
climate  of  the  rest  of  the  country  is  to  be  found  somewhere  in  Texas. 
The  climate  ranges  from  a  winter  temperature  of  20  degrees  below  zero  in 
the  Panhandle,  to  an  almost  frostless  condition  in  the  Lower  Rio  Grande 
Valley.  In  east  Texas  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall,  with  a  consequent  luxuri- 
ant vegetation,  while  in  parts  of  west  Texas  one  finds  a  desert  flora  and 
little  rain.  At  one  point  which  the  author  once  visited  he  was  told  there 
had  been  no  rain  for  eighteen  months  and  the  very  dry  and  dead  condition 
cf  everything,  even  the  cactus,  indicated  that  it  was  true. 

Texas  seems  to  be  divided  into  about  five  natural  beekeeping  divisions. 
Each  of  these  has  a  flora  and  conditions  peculiar  to  itself,  though,  of 
course,  there  is  a  gradual  merging  of  these  natural  divisions.  The  lower 
Rio  Grande  Valley  is  the  southernmost  section  of  the  United  States,  ex- 
cept the  extreme  tip  of  Florida.  Here  we  find  conditions  unlike  any  other 
part  of  Texas.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  honey  plants,  with  a  light  flow 
almost  continuously,  but  no  heavy  honey  flows.  This  condition  favors  the 
continuous  breeding  of  bees  and  the  consumption  of  the  honey  gathered  in 
brood  rearing.  It  is  the  most  favorable  situation  in  America  for  the  rear- 
ing of  queens  and  bees,  but  a  poor  place  for  honey  production,  since  the 
average  surplus  per  colony  seldom   exceeds   twenty-five  pounds.     . 

In  this  section  bees  swarm  as  late  as  December  and  gather  sufficient 
nectar  to  carry  them  through  the  brief  period  when  vegetation  is  dormant. 
The  huisache  and  catsclaw  bloom  in  February  and  March.  Hackberry  also 
begins  to  yield  in  February.  From  February  till  December  there  are  but 
short  periods  without  some  nectar  coming  from  the  field.  Brazilwood, 
horsemint,  Texan  ebony,  blackbrush,  privet,  coma,  mesquite,  whitebrush, 
and  many  others,  yield  light  flows  of  nectar. 

The  Arid  Region 

The  escarpment  running  east  and  west  between  San  Antonio  and  New 
Braunfels  marks  a  very  definite  boundary  to  the  belt  where  cotton  is  the 
principal  source  of  surplus  honey.  South  of  the  escarpment  and  extending 
to  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  we  have  the  mesquite  region.  A  line 
drawn  in  a  southeasterly  direction  from  San  Antonio,  through  Cuera  and 
Victoria  to  the  Gulf,  would  mark  the  approximate  eastern  boundary  of 
this  region.  Figure  136  shows  a  characteristic  group  of  honey  plants  of 
southwest  Texas.  Agarita  (barberry),  mesquite,  hackberry,  Mexican  per- 
simmon, brazilwood,  anaqua,  prickly  pear  and  huisache,  all  valuable  plants 
to  the  beekeeper,  are  growing  together.  There  are  very  characteristic 
plants  for  this  region.  Most  of  the  honey  comes  from  thorny  shrubs,  in- 
cluding catsclaw,  huajillo  (pronounced  wa-he-ya),  etc.  This  belt  extends 
westward  for  a  long  distance  and  includes  the  famous  Uvalde  County,  from 
which  hundreds  of  cars  of  fine  honey  from  catsclaw  and  huajillo  have  been 
shipped. 

The  Cotton  Region. 

North  of  the  escarpment  already  mentioned  we  find  the  cotton  belt 
extending  north  to  Oklahoma  and  including  the  black,  waxy  lands  and 
other  heavy  soils.     Figure  46,  in  connection  with   the  article  on  cotton, 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  259 

shows  an  outline  map  roughly  indicating  the  different  honey  regions  of 
the  State.  Within  this  particular  area,  we  find  the  highest  development 
of  agriculture  in  Texas.  The  soil  is  rich  and  the  climate  mild.  Cotton, 
corn,  alfalfa,  small  grains  and  truck  crops  are  all  profitably  grown. 
Mesquite  is  an  important  source  of  nectar  in  the  cotton  belt,  as  is  also 
horsemint,  and  in  the  northern  portion,  sweet  clover.  Broomweed  is  also 
important,  some  seasons. 

East  Texas. 

In  the  timbered  regions  of  east  Texas  there  is  some  splendid  beekeep- 
ing territory  unoccupied.  There  is  a  variety  of  flora  to  be  equalled  in  few 
sections,  and  remarkable  yields  of  honey  are  reported.  On  heavy  soils 
cotton  yields  freely.  Basswood,  rattan,  huckleberry,  partridge  pea,  horse- 
mint,  bitterweed  and  cowpeas  are  all  reported  as  sources  of  surplus  honey 
in  this  section.  Beekeepers  of  extensive  experience  report  that  one  can 
depend  upon  an  average  of  more  than  one  hundred  pounds  per  colony  per 
year  for  a  ten-year  period. 

Although  the  average  yield  is  much  higher  and  the  flows  are  much 
more  dependable  than  in  other  parts  of  Texas,  the  business  of  beekeeping 
is  less  highly  specialized  here  than  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  This  is 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  general  agriculture  is  profitable  and  public 
attention  has  not  been  called  to  the  possibilities  of  this  section. 

THIMBLEBERRY,  see  Raspberry;  also  Salmon  Berry. 
THORN   APPLE,   see   Hawthorne. 
THOROUGHWORT,  see  Boneset. 

THYME  (Thymus). 

Thyme  is  an  introduced  plant  from  Europe  which  is  sometimes  culti- 
vated in  gardens  and  occurs  occasionally  as  an  escape.  There  are  two 
species  listed  in  this  country  Thymus  vulgaris,  the  source  of  the  famed 
honey  from  Mt.  Hymettus,  and  Thymus  serphyllum,  the  wild  or  creeping 
thyme. 

According  to  J.  E.  Crane,  thyme  is  found  in  southwestern  Vermont  in 
sufficient  abundance  to  make  excellent  pasture  for  the  bees  during  August. 
There  is  an  occasional  report  from  some  beekeeper  who  finds  the  bees 
much  attracted  to  the  plant,  but  as  yet  no  reports  of  surplus  honey  worthy 
cf  mention  have  been   received. 

TIEVINE,  see  Morning  Glory. 
TISSWOOD,  see  Red  Bay. 

TI-TI. 

The  leatherwood  or  black  ti-ti  (Cyrilla  racemiflora)  is  a  shrub  with 
shining  leaves  and  large  numbers  of  small  flowers  in  clusters.  It  occurs  in 
swamps  from  southern  Virginia  to  Florida  and  west  to  Louisiana  and 
Texas.  In  Alabama  and  Mississippi  it  occurs  from  the  Central  Pine  Belt 
to  the  Coast  Plain,  in  the  edges  of  swamps  and  along  streams.     It  is  also 


260  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

known  as  white  ti-ti,  ironwood  and  red  ti-ti.  It  sometimes  reaches  the 
height  of  20  to  30  feet,  becoming  a  small  tree,  though  usually  it  is  found  as 
a   shrub.     The   thin  bark  breaks  up  into  large  scales. 

The  bloom  opens  in  June  and  July  and  is  not  regarded  as  a  very  de- 
pendable source  of  nectar.    The  honey  is  dark,  with  a  mild  flavor. 

The  ti-ti  (Cliftonia  monophylla),  sometimes  called  buckwheat-tree  or 
ironwood,  also  known  as  black  ti-ti,  occurs  in  wet,  sandy  soil  and  swamps 
from  South  Carolina  to  Florida  and  west  to  Louisiana.  It  is  an  attractive 
tree,  often  reaching  a  height  of  30  to  40  feet.  This  shrub  or  tree,  as  the 
case  may  be,  often  grows  in  dense  thickets  called  ti-ti  swamps.  The  flow- 
ers are  white  and  fragrant  and  appear  in  late  February  to  April.  There  are 
large  areas  of  ti-ti  swamp  in  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  which 
furnish  abundant  bee  pasture.  According  to  Baldwin,  it  yields  surplus 
honey  in  the  extreme  northwest  portion  of  west  Florida.  He  describes  the 
honey  as  red,  strong,  and  suitable  mostly  for  baking  purposes.  (Gleanings, 
March  15,  1911.) 

Ti-ti  is  of  more  or  less  value  as  a  source  of  nectar  in  the  swampy  dis- 
tricts of  all  the  Southeastern  States  from  South  Carolina  to  Louisiana. 
The  honey  is  not  of  the  best  quality,  nor  is  the  yield  generally  heavy. 

TOBACCO    (Nicotiana   tabacum). 

The  tobacco  plant  is  a  coarse  annual.  It  is  grown  as  a  field  crop  in 
the  South  and  also  in  a  few  northern  localities,  especially  in  Wisconsin 
and  Connecticut.  As  a  honey  plant  it  is  probably  seldom  important.  The 
fact  that  the  plants  are  usually  cut  in  advance  of  the  time  when  the  bloom 
is  at  its  best,  would  make  it  unavailable,  for  the  most  part,  as  a  source  of 
nectar. 

"We  are  in  a  location  'where  hundreds  of  acres  of  tobacco  are 
raised  every  year.  I  have  taken  bees  and  placed  them  near  the  fields 
and  they  will  store  some  honey  from  the  plant  some  years.  It  is  very 
dark,  much  like  buckwheat  in  color,  strong  and  very  heavy  body.  Buck- 
wheat is  not  my  favorite  honey,  but  I  can  eat  it.  Tobacco  honey  I 
cannot.  It  is  very  slow  to  granulate,  and  I  have  never  seen  it  harden 
as  other  honey  will,  even  when  well  ripened  and  two  years  old." — W. 
K.  Rockwell,  Bloomfield,  Conn.    American  Bee  Journal,  page  63,  1919. 

"Tobacco  yields  a  heavy  flow  under  certain  conditions  in  Porto 
Rico." — Henry  Brenner,  in  American  Bee  Journal,  page  381.     1916. 

"Tobacco  in  this  section  has  always  been  raised  in  the  open  field 
and,  when  about  4  feet  high,  each  plant  has  been  'topped'  and  not  al- 
lowed to  go  to  seed.  *  *  *  It  is  now  being  picked  in  the  field  in- 
stead of  being  cut  by  the  old  method.  The  plant  is  allowed  to  grow 
from  7  to  10  feet  high  and  goes  to  seed.  The  leaves  are  saved  by 
picking,  this  work  commencing  at  the  bottom,  one  row  of  leaves  being 
gathered  at  a  time,  and  the  top  leaves  picked  last.  The  plants  are  thus 
allowed  to  blossom,  each  one  bearing  hundreds  of  flowers,  and  they 
continue  to  bloom  from  August  1  till  frost.  Thus  we  have  thrown  open 
to  our  bees  hundreds  of  acres  of  tobacco,  containing  myriads  of  flow- 
ers.. The  bees  swarm  on  it,  some  days  more  than  others,  and  the  honey 
comes  in  as  fast  as  during  the  earlier  flows." — E.  H.  Shattuck,  Granby, 
Conn.     Gleanings,   page  268.      1911. 

TOLLON  BERRY,  see  Christmas  Berry. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  261 

TOOTHACHE-TREE,  see  Prickly  Ash. 
TOY-ON   BERRY,  see  Christmas  Berry. 
TRAILING  ARBUTUS,  see  Arbutus. 
TREE  HUCKLEBERRY,  see  Farkle-Berry. 
TREE  OF  HEAVEN,  see  Varnish  Tree. 

TREE   CLOVER,   TREE    ALFALFA   or   TAGASASTE    (Cytisus   proliferus 
alba). 

The  tree  alfalfa,  or  white  broom,  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  California. 

In   Australia    it    is    regarded   as    important,   as    the   following   extract    from 

Raynunt  (Money  in  Bees  in  Australasia),  will  show: 

"This  rapid-growing  hedge  plant  is  now  widely  known  as  a  grand 
honey  yielder.  As  a  wind  break  for  the  apiary  it  is  unrivaled.  The 
white  blossoms  burst  the  sheaves  early  in  spring,  almost  before  the 
winter  has  departed.  Bees  work  upon  it  during  a  shower,  as  the  droop- 
ing habit  of  the  flowers  prevents  the  nectar  washing  out  with  the  rain. 
The  pollen  is  cadmium  in  color  and  the  honey  very  pale  and  clear, 
rather  thin  and  of  mild  flavor.  To  make  a  close  hedge  it  should  be  se- 
verely cut  back.  Unfortunately,  the  sheep  and  cattle,  also  the  kan- 
garoos are  fond  of  it  and  keep  it  eaten  back." 
It  is  native  to  the  Canary  Islands  and  adjacent  regions.     As  it  thrives 

in  California,  it  is  promising  for  trial  in  the  warmer  parts  of  America. 

TRILLIUM. 

One  of  the  first  spring  flowers,  the  trillium,  of  which  there  are  several 
species,  is  attractive  to  the  bees.  It  is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of. 
wake  robin,  or  birthroot.  As  it  blooms  so  early,  it  is  seldom  that  the  bees 
find  many  good  days  for  flying,  and  such  early  spring  flowers  can  never  be 
regarded  as  important  except  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  brood  rearing. 

TROPICAL  LILAC  (Duranta  plumiere).     GOLDEN  DEWDROP. 

The  tropical  lilac  is  a  hedge  plant  cultivated  in  Florida  and  California 
and  other  southern  localities.  W.  K.  Morrison  lists  it  in  Gleanings  (Aug. 
1,  1905),  as  extremely  attractive  to  the  bees  and  as  blooming  for  some  time. 
Probably  not  sufficiently  abundant  in  America  to  be  important  anywhere. 

TRUMPET   WEED,  see   Boneset. 

TULIP-POPLAR   or  TULIP   TREE   (Liriodendron   tulipifera). 

The  tulip-tree,  also  known  as  yellow  poplar,  is  a  very  large  tree,  often 
growing  to  a  height  of  100  to  140  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  6  to  9  feet.  It  is 
found  from  southern  New  England  west  to  southern  Michigan  and  south 
to  the  Gulf  States,  east  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  also  found  to  a  limited 
extent  in  southeastern  Missouri  and  eastern  Arkansas.  It  blooms  in  April 
and  May  and  produces  a  light  amber  honey  of  good  flavor. 

According  to  Buchanan,  the  honey  yield  from  this  source  is  heavy  and 
the  tree  is  an  important  addition  to  the  nectar-secreting  flora  of  Tennes- 
see and  nearby  States.    The  showy  flowers  are  shown  at  Figure  137. 

The  possibilities  of  this  source  of  nectar  are  not  properly  appreciated. 


262 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Since  it  blooms  so  early  in  spring,  few  colonies  of  bees  are  sufficiently 
strong  to  gather  the  crop  possible  from  tulip-poplar.  The  skilled  bee- 
keeper, who  can  bring  his  colonies  through  the  winter  in  good  condition, 
gets  large  yields  of  honey  from  this  source.     In   the  vicinity  of  Washing- 


Fig.  137.     Blossoms  of  tulip-poplar 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  263 

ton,  D.  C,  it  is  the  principal  source  of  surplus,  and  strong  colonies  often 
store  an  average  of  100  pounds.  In 'many  cases  the  bees  build  up  on  tulip- 
poplar  only  to  become  strong  after  the  flow  is  over.  In  locations  where 
this  tree  is  common,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  get  strong  colonies 
early  in  spring  to  take  advantage  of  this  flow. 

TUPELO-GUM   (Nyssa). 

There  are  four  species  of  the  tupelo-gum  trees,  which  should  not  be 
confused  with  the  gums  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  which  are  eucalyptus  (See 
Eucalyptus).  The  tupelo-gum,  or  cotton-gum  (Nyssa  aquatica)  (Fig.  138), 
is  a  very  large  tree  common  to  the  swamps  from  southeastern  Missouri 
and  southern  Illinois  east  to  Virginia  and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  It 
grows  to  a  height  of  more  than  100  feet  and  yields  enormous  quantities  of 
nectar. 

The  pepperidge,  or  highland  black-gum  (Nyssa  sylvatica)  sometimes 
called  sour-gum,  yellow-gum,  tupelo,  or  stinkwood,  grows  in  moist  upland 
woods  from  Ontario  and  New  England  to  Michigan  and  south  to  Florida 
and  Texas.  It  reaches  a  height  of  150  feet  and  a  diameter  of  four  feet, 
under   favorable  conditions. 

The  water-gum,  or  Southern  black-gum  (Nyssa  biflora),  also  called 
water  tupelo,  has  a  swollen  base  and,  when  growing  in  the  water,  pro- 
duces erect  roots  which  rise  to  the  surface.  It  is  found  from  North  Caro- 
lina to  Florida  and  west  to  eastern  Texas.  It  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a 
variety  of  the  pepperidge  or  black-gum. 

The  ogeche  plum  or  wild  lime-tree  (Nyssa  Ogeche),  called  white  tupelo, 
is  much  smaller  than  the  other  gum-trees,  growing  to  a  height  of  forty  to 
sixty  feet.  It  is  common  to  the  swamps  of  Georgia,  Florida  and  South 
Carolina. 

The  first  named  species  is  very  common  in  the  swamps  of  Alabama 
and  Florida,  where  it  often  grows  with  the  bald  cypress  on  the  banks  of 
the  Alabama,  Tombigbee  and  Appalachicola  Rivers.  A.  B.  Marchant  aver- 
aged 82  pounds  of  surplus  honey  per  colony  from  tupelo  for  a  seventeen- 
year  period  on  the  Appalachicola  River  in  Florida.  During  part  of  this  time 
he  kept  as  many  as  500  colonies  to  the  yard.  In  1904,  he  took  250  thirty- 
gallon  barrels  from  750  colonies,  an  average  of  about  120  pounds  per  colony. 

The  tupelos  are  the  source  of  much  honey  in  Arkansas,  east  Texas  and 
other  Southern  States,  as  well  as  in  Alabama  and  Florida.  Beekeepers 
complain  that  in  many  of  the  best  tupelo  locations  there  is  a  shortage  of 
summer  pollen,  so  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  move  the  bees  away  when 
the  tupelo  flow  is  over. 

The  tupelo  honey  is  of  good  quality,  and,  when  unmixed,  will  not 
granulate.  Bottlers  like  to  use  tupelo  honey  for  blending  with  other  grades 
to  retard  granulation.  It  is  good  body  and  mild  flavor,  and  finds  a  ready 
sale  at  better  prices  than  most  southern  honey  brings. 

TURKEY  MULLEIN  (Eremocarpus  setigerus). 

The  turkey  mullein  is  also  known  as  coyote  weed,  wooly  white  drought 
weed,  and  yerba  del  pescado.    The  latter,  according  to  Jepson,  is  the  Spa- 


264 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


nish-Californian  name,  derived  from  the  custom  of  the  Indians  to  use  the 
heavy-scented  herbage  of  this  plant  to  stupefy  fish  in  small  streams,  to 
catch  them  by  hand.  He  gives  the  range  as  dry  open  areas  from  the  plains 
or   the   Sacramento   and   San    Toaquin,   Sierra   Nevada   foothills   to   the   low 


Fig.   138.     Blossoms  of  the  tupelo  gum. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  265 

hills  and  valley  fields  of  the  Coast  Ranges.  It  grows  mostly  in  stubble 
fields  following  the  grain  harvests,  contesting  for  survival  with  the  blue 
curls. 

From  Western  Honeybee  we  quote  as   follows: 


rora  Western  Honeybee  we  quote  as  toiiows : 

"Turkey   mullein   is   a   different   appearing  plant    (from   blue   curls), 
at   grows    under    exactly    similar     conditions.       Its     insignificant    pale 
reen  or  white  flowers  yield  a  thick  amber  honey,  of  biting,  astringent 
,.avor,  often  in  considerable  quantities. 

"I  have  known  a  beekeeper  in  San  Diego  County  to  market  eight 
tons  of  this  honey.  It  is  fit  only  for  manufacturing  purposes.  The 
foliage  of  turkey  mullein  is  white,  wooly,  and  exhales  a  pungent  odor." 
October.  1914. 

TURNIP   (Brassica). 

Where  turnips  are  grown  for  seed  in  large  acreage,  surplus  honey  may 
be  expected  from  this  source.    The  late  J.  S.  Harbison  said  of  them: 

"Turnip  blossoms  are  eagerly  sought  by  the  bees,  and  afford  so  rich 
pasturage  during  March  and  April  as  to  make  it  a  profitable  crop,  if 
but  for  this  purpose  alone." — Beekeeper's  Directory. 

TURPENTINE  WEED,  see  Blue  Curls. 


U 

ULEX,  see  Gorse. 

UMBRELLA  TREE,  see  Wild  China. 

UTAH — Honey  Sources  of. 

Most  of  the  surplus  honey  which  goes  to  market  from  Utah  is  from 
sweet  clover  and  alfalfa.  Salmon-berry,  clover,  dandelion,  willows  and  the 
desert  flowers  add  something  to  the  output  of  the  apiary. 


VACCINIUM,  see  Blueberry. 

VARNISH  TREE  or  TREE  OF  HEAVEN   (Ailanthus  glandulosa). 

This  tree  is  met  by  a  great  variety  of  names,  varnish  tree,  tree  of 
heaven  and  Chinese  sumac  being  common.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  China 
and  has  been  extensively  cultivated  as  a  shade  tree  in  America.  It  spreads 
easily  and  is  quite  generally  naturalized.  Scholl  lists  it  as  a  source  of 
honey  and  pollen  in  Texas.  Richter  regards  it  as  a  wonderful  yielder  in 
California,  where  it  produces  an  abundance  of  ill-tasting  honey.  It  is  re- 
ported as  a  honey  producer  in  Georgia  and  is  to  be  found  in  many  States 
from   east   to  west   in   greater   or   less   abundance.     The   disagreeable   odor 


266  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

of   the   staminate   flowers   is   a  'well-known   characteristic   of   the   tree.     In 
appearance  it  looks  much  like  a  very  large   sumac. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  France,  the  ailanthus,  also  called  ailanthe, 
yields  honey  which  must  be  removed  before  other  honeys  are  harvested, 
as   it  spoils   the   taste   of   the  honey  of  other   plants. 

VERBENA,  see  Vervain. 

VERMONT— Honey    Sources    of. 

The  willows  furnish  first  nectar  in  Vermont.  Fruit  blossoms,  dande- 
lions and  maples  also  furnish  nectar  in  abundance  in  early  spring.  White 
and  alsike  clover,  together  with  goldenrod,  furnish  the  principal  surplus 
honey.  Sumac,  laurel,  asters  and  less  important  plants  also  furnish  some 
honey. 
VERNONIA,  see  Ironweed. 


VERVAIN    (Verbena). 

There  are  about  16  species  of  verbenas  in  North  America,  and  several 
of  them  are  widely  distributed.     Figure  139  shows  the  blue  vervain   (Ver- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


267 


bena  hastata),  which  is  found  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Quebec  and  Manitoba, 
south  to  Arkansas,  New  Mexico  and  California,  and  on  the  east,  south  to 
Georgia.  This  particular  species  is  usually  found  in  low  lands,  along 
streams,  etc.  Richter,  in  his  "Honey  Plants  of  California,"  mentions  an- 
other species,  Verbena  prostrata,  as  yielding  considerable  honey  in  some 
localities  in  that  State.  In  Iowa  the  hoary  vervain  (Verbena  stricta),  is 
very  common  in  upland  pastures,  especially  over  the  north  half  of  the 
State,  and  reports  of  surplus  honey  from  this  source  are  not  uncommon. 

Mr.  Scholl  reports  Verbena  xutha  as  yielding  sparingly  in  Texas. 
While  in  the  main  the  vervains  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  important  honey 
plants,  in  limited  localities  some  species  are  very  valuable  sources  of  nec- 
tar. Mr.  S.  W.  Snyder,  former  Secretary  of  the  Iowa  Beekeepers'  Asso- 
siation,  reports  the  blue  vervain  as  quite  valuable  in  his  locality,  some 
years   furnishing  a   surplus. 

VERVENIA,  see  Phacelia. 


Fig.   140.     Virginia  creeper,   or  American   ivy. 


VETCH  (Vicia). 

There  are  about  a  dozen  species  of  vetch  native  to  America  and  two 
or  three  varieties  widely  cultivated  for  forage.  They  yield  some  honey, 
and  there  are  reports  from  beekeepers  to  the  effect  that  their  bees  work 
upon  vetch  freely.  However,  ther  is  little  to  indicate  that  they  are  an  im- 
portant source  of  nectar.    Richter  lists  spring  vetch  as  a  source  of  honey, 


268 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


but  does  not  indicate  that  it  yields  surplus  in  California,  where  it  is  grown 
as  a  cover  crop.     Some  species  have  extra-floral  nectaries. 

Some  of  the  group  are  regarded  as  good  honey  plants  in   Europe. 

VINEGAR-WEED,  see  Blue  Curls,  also  Tarweed 

VINE   MAPLE   (Acer  circinatum). 

Vine  maple  is  common  on  the  Pacific  Coast  from  Humboldt  County, 
California,  north  to  Washington.  There  are  numerous  reports  of  vine 
maple  as  an  abundant  source  of  early  nectar  in  Oregon  and  Washington. 
The  honey  is  amber  and  of  excellent  quality,  but  it  blooms  so  early  (April) 
that  the  bees  are  usually  not  in  condition  to  store  much  surplus.  (See 
Maple).  In  exceptional  seasons  as  high  as  SO  pounds  of  surplus  have  been 
gathered  by  a  single  colony  from  vine  maple. 


Fig.   141.      Blossoms  and  leaf  of  Virginia  waterleaf. 

VINE  MILKWEED   (Enslenia  alblda). 

The  vine  milkweed  is  a  smooth  perennial  climbing  herb,  with  small 
whitish  flowers.  It  is  common  along  streams  from  southern  Pennsyl- 
vania and  the  Ohio  Valley  south  to  north  Georgia  and  west  to  Texas. 

It  is  reported  as  a  good  honey  plant  in  the  vicinity  of  Buffalo,  Texas. 
H.  B.  Parks  states  that  it  is  a  valuable  bee  plant,  if  sufficiently  common. 

VIPER'S  BUGLOSS,  see  Blueweed. 


VIRGINIA— Honey  Sources  of. 

Willows,  fruit  blossoms,  red-bud  and  maples  furnish  early  nectar  and 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


269 


pollen.  These  are  followed  by  dandelion,  which  is  abundant.  Persimmon, 
clover,  locust,  chinquapin,  tulip-poplar,  holly,  laurel,  basswood,  tupelo  and 
asters  are  sources  of  later  nectar.  Sourwood  is  found  in  some  sections 
and  produces  an  abundance  of  the  finest  honey. 

VIRGIN'S   BOWER,  see  Clematis. 


42.     Masses  of  Virginia  Waterleaf  in  the  authi 


ild  garden  at  Atlantic    low; 


VIRGINIA   CREEPER    (Parthenocissus    quinquefolia). 

The  Virginia  creeper,  also  known  as  American  ivy  or  woodbine,  is  a 
common  climbing  vine  in  thickets  and  woods  from  New  England  to  Que- 
bec and  Manitoba,  Dakota  and  Colorado  and  south  to  the  Gulf  from 
Florida  to  western  Texas. 

While  the  bees  seek  it  eagerly  at  times  and  the  vines  fairly  hum  with 
them,  it  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  of  importance  to  the  beekeeper. 

This  plant  is  often  confused  with  poison  ivy,  but  the  two  plants  can 
easily  be  distinguished  by  the  difference  in  habit  of  growth,  and  by  the 
five  leaflets  in  the  creeper,  as  shown  in  Figure  140,  while  the  poison  ivy 
has  only  three  leaflets  to  each  leaf. 

VIRGINIA  WATERLEAF   (Hydrophyllum  vlrginicum). 

The  Virginia  waterleaf  does  not  bloom  until  after  the  fruit  blossoms 
are  gone,  and  so  has  less  competition  for  attention  than  some  other  plants 
that  come  into  bloom  during  the  same  period.     It  blooms  abundantly  and 


270  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

grows  luxuriantly  in  moist  woods.  The  bees  have  been  so  eager  for  the 
blossoms  of  this  plant  in  the  writer's  wild  garden  and  in  the  surrounding 
woods  for  several  years  past,  that  he  has  come  to  regard  it  is  quite  a 
valuable  honey  plant,  although  nowhere  so  listed  as  far  as  can  be  learned. 
Figure  141  shows  the  blossom  and  leaf  of  this  plant,  while  Figure  142 
shows  masses  of  the  plants  in  bloom.  Apiaries  in  the  vicinity  of  wood- 
lands should  find  this  plant  of  considerable  value,  judging  from  the  writ- 
er's limited  observation. 

VITEX   NEGUNDO   INCISA. 

A  plant  of  recent  introduction  by  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.  De- 
scribed as  follows  by  Frank  N.  Meyer,  explorer,  who  found  it  at  Shantung, 
China: 

"A  sage  which  may  prove  to  be  a  good  plant  for  the  arid  South- 
western   States.      It     is     able     to    resist    alkali    remarkably   well.     The 
Chinese  use  it  for  basketry  manufacture,  taking  the  annual  shoots  for 
this  purpose.     It  has  pretty  blue  flowers  and  is  diligently  visited  by  all 
kinds  of  bees,  and  as   such   it  might   be   grown   in   gardens   as   a   semi- 
ornamental  shrub.     It  grows,  when  left  alone,  up  to  20  feet  tall." 
Specimens  tested  by  the  author  in  Iowa,  which  were  mere  whips  about 
20  inches   tall,   began   bloooming  the   same   season,   the   last   week   in   July, 
and  had  not  entirely  faded  on  September  10.     The  bees  sought  it  eagerly 
and  apparently,  if  abundant,  it  would  be  a  valuable  honey  plant. 


w 


WA-HE-YA  (Huajillo),  see  Acacia. 
WAHOO,   see    Hop-Tree. 
WAKEROBIN,  see  Trillium.     _ 

WALNUT  (Juglans). 

The  black  walnut  is  a  well-known  forest  tree  in  the  eastern  United 
States.  Its  usual  range  is  from  Ontario  and  New  England  west  to  Ne- 
braska, and  south  to  Florida  and  Texas.  The  wood  is  very  valuable  for 
the  manufacture  of  gunstocks,  furniture,  etc.,  and  is  becoming  somewhat 
scarce.  The  tree  leaves  out  later  than  most  forest  trees,  not  developing 
its  foliage  until  May  or  June.  Figure  143  shows  the  pollen-bearing  blos- 
soms. These  blossoms  are  long  catkins  borne  on  the  wood  of  the  preced- 
ing year.  The  blossoms  appear  before  the  leaves.  Quantities  of  pollen 
are  produced,  and,  at  times,  the  bees  seek  the  trees  in  such  numbers  as  to 
make  a  continuous  roar.  The  walnut  blooms  after  the  maples  and  wil- 
lows, and  is  not  as  valuable  as  earlier  blooming  trees,  because  it  comes  at 
about  the  same  time  that  the  dandelions  are  in  bloom.  May  is  the  month 
of  blossoming  in  most  northern  localities. 

The  white  walnuts  or  butternuts  of  the  Eastern  States,  and  the  Eng- 
lish walnuts,  Japaneses  walnuts  and  California  walnuts  grown  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  California,  are  relatives  of  the 
black  walnut,  and  probably  equally  valuable  for  pollen. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


271 


WASHINGTON— Honey    Sources    of. 

Alfalfa,  sweet  clover.  Sweet  clover  is  quite  generally  distributed  over 
all  irrigated  alfalfa  districts.  The  Yakima  Valley  is  the  largest  of  these 
districts  and  supports  at  least  25,000  colonies.  If  it  were  not  for  spray 
poison  this  district  could  support  SO  per  cent  more.  Sweet  clover  is  being 
introduced  in  many  other  sections  of  the  State,  Spokane  County,  for  ex- 
ample. New  irrigation  projects  will  increase  the  beekeeping  area  con- 
siderably in  many  sections  of  the  arid  portion  of  this  State. 

Fireweed  (Epilobium  angustifolium).  This  plant  is  second  only  to  the 
above  as  a  honey  plant.  It  is  found  in  great  abundance  on  all  burned- 
over  land  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  It  is  also  found  in  more  or 
less  abundance  on  burned  sections  on  the  east  side.  Due  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  much  less  rainfall  it  is  not  as  reliable  as  a  source  of  nectar  as  it 
is  on  the  west  side  of  the  State. 

White  clover  is  important  on  old  cleared  off  land  on  west  side.     Also 


important  in  Stevens,  Pend  'Oreille,  Klickitat,  Spokane  and  Whitman 
Counties.     Of  minor  importance   in  most  other  counties. 

Alsike  clover.  Important  in  a  few  localities  on  the  west  side  and  in 
the  northeast  part  of  the  State,  where   conditions  are   favorable. 

Vine  maple  (A.  circinatum).  Very  abundant  on  the  west  coast  from 
about  King  County  south.  A  good  yielder  of  an  excellent  amber  honey. 
Blooms  so  early,  about  April,  that  few  colonies  are  in  a  condition  to  store 
much  surplus. 

Oregon  maple  (A.  macrophyllum).  An  important  honey  plant  on  the 
18 


272  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

west  side,  from  about  King  County  south. 

Dwarf  maple  (A.  glabrum)._  In  most  timbered  sections  of  the  State. 
Honey  value  unknown. 

Willow.  Willows  are  abundant  in  almost  every  locality  and  are  of 
great   value   for   spring   feeding. 

Chittam  (Cascara  sagrada).  Abundant  in  most  sections  of  the  west 
side  and  reported  to  be  an  important  honey  plant.  It  is  being  killed  off  in 
many  sections,  due  to  the  harvesting  of  the  bark  for  medicinal  use. 

Locust.  Locust  has  been  planted  extensively  in  many  of  the  irrigated 
sections  of  the  State,  where  it  furnishes  an  abundance  of  nectar  at  a  time 
when  it  is  badly  needed  by  the  bees.  A  surplus  is  gathered  in  many  sec- 
tions of  Walla  Walla  County.     A  water-white  honey  of  excellent  flavor. 

Dandelion.  Abundant  in  all  sections  where  there  is  sufficient  moisture. 
As  in  most  sections  of  the  country,  it  is  of  great  importance. 

Cat's  ear  (Hypochaeris  radicata).  Sometimes  called  California  dande- 
lion. Abundant  west  of  Cascades.  Supplies  considerable  nectar  of  amber 
color.  In  many  sections  it  darkens  the  fireweed  honey,  and  for  that  rea- 
son beekeepers  like  to  avoid  it,  if  possible. 

Goldenrod.  Abundant  in  all  sections  of  the  State  where  there  is  suf- 
ficient moisture.  There  are  a  number  of  species,  but  the  writer  has  never 
seen  a  bee  working  on  it  in  this  State.  This  is  due,  in  most  cases,  doubt- 
less, to  the   fact  that  more   desirable   nectar   is   available. 

Gum-weeds  (Grindelia).  Present  in  most  parts  of  the  State.  Doubt- 
less of  some  value. 

Mustard.     Important   on   west   side   in    some   localities. 

Snowberry  (Symphoricarpos  racemosus)  and  other  species.  Also 
called  buck-brush,  wax  berry,  wolf  berry.  Abundant  on  the  west  side  and 
in  the  northeast  part  of  the  State.  Common  in  many  parts.  Seems  to 
yield  well  where  abundant.     Quality  of  honey  unknown. 

Milkweed  (Asclepias).  Two  species  are  found  on  the  east  side.  Neither 
has  been  seen  on  the  west  side,  and  is  not  reported  as  occurring  there  by 
Piper  and  Beattie. 

Dewberry  (Rubus  macropetalus).  Abundant  in  logged-off  sections.  Of 
considerable    importance    as    a    honey   plant. 

Alder  (A.  oregona  and  A.  sinuata).  Common  on  the  west  side  in  par- 
ticular, especially  the  former. 

Madrona  (Arbutus  menziesii).  Common  all  over  the  west  side,  except 
in  heavy  timber.     Supplies  nectar,  but   importance   unknown. 

Helianthus.  Two  species  occur.  A  small,  early  species,  not  deter- 
mined; has  been  reported  as  important  on  the  east  side,  where  it  grows 
with  little  moisture.  The  species  is  doubtless  H.  annuus,  which  is  the  only 
one  listed  by  Piper  and  Beattie.  The  other  species  is  doubtless  an  intro- 
duced species  from  the  east. 

Indian  hemp  (Apocynum  pemilum).  Northeastern  Washington.  Im- 
portant minor  plant. 

Phacelia  (P.  heterophylla)  was  found  abundant  in  Kittitas  County, 
where  it  was  yielding  considerable  nectar.  Reported  that  the  honey  is 
amber.    P.  tanacetifolia  has  been  introduced  into  northern  Idaho  at  Coeur 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  273 

d'Alene  in  a  very  limited  way,  where  it  yields  considerable  nectar,  con- 
sidering its  abundance. 

Horehound  and  catnip.  Both  plants  are  found  in  considerable  abund- 
ance in  all  parts  of  the  State  where  there  is  sufficient  moisture.  Both 
seem   to  yield   considerable   nectar. 

Huckleberry.  Several  species  of  huckleberries  are  found  in  the  State 
and  are  very  abundant  in  many  sections,  as,  for  example,  Mason  County. 
They  have  been  reported  as  honey  plants,  but  their  relative  value  is  un- 
known.— H.  A.  Scullen. 

WATER-GUM,  see   Tupelo. 

WATERMELON   (Citrullus  citrullus). 

Where  grown  on  a  commercial  scale  the  watermelon  is  the  source 
of  some  honey.  The  bees  visit  the  blossoms  eagerly  for  both  pollen  and 
nectar.     Important  only  in  a  few  localities. 

WATER   PEPPER,  see   Heartsease. 

WATERWEED    (Jussiaea    californica). 

The  California  waterweed  is  common  to  wet  lands  in  the  lower  Sacra- 
mento and  San  Joaquin  Valleys,  where,  according  to  Richter,  it  is  the 
source   of   considerable    ill-tasting  honey. 

WATTLE,  see  Acacia. 
WAXBERRY,   see   Snowberry. 

WEATHER  AND  HONEY  PRODUCTION. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  nectar  secretion  is  very  sensitive  to 
weather  conditions.  However,  the  same  conditions  are  not  most  favorable 
for   all  plants. 

J.  L.  Strong,  a  beekeeper  of  Clarinda,  Iowa,  kept  a  careful  record  of 
weather  conditions  in  connection  with  the  daily  gain  or  loss  of  a  colony 
en  scales  for  29  years,  from  1885  to  1914.  In  his  locality,  in  southwestern 
Iowa,  white  clover  is  the  principal  source  of  honey.  While  the  bees  begin 
the  season  with  the  willows,  maples,  fruit  bloom  and  dandelion,  there  is 
little  surplus  stored  until  the  blooming  of  clover.  Leslie  A.  Kenoyer,  of 
the  Iowa  College  of  Agriculture,  made  a  careful  study  of  the  Strong  rec- 
ords and  prepared  a  bulletin  outlining  his  conclusions.  While  the  records 
kept  by  Mr.  Strong  for  a  long  period  give  material  for  fairly  accurate 
conclusions  regarding  the  effect  of  the  weather  on  nectar  secretion  in 
white  clover,  it  can  hardly  be  expected  that  the  same  conclusions  will  ap- 
ply to  all  other  plants.  (Bulletin  169,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
Ames,  Iowa.)    From  the  foregoing  the  following  conclusions  are  extracted: 

Rain. 

Abundant  rain  seems  essential  to  stimulate  plants  to  the  vigor  neces- 
sary to  nectar  production  and  to  furnish  the  water  contained  in  the  se- 
cretion. 


274  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

Some  honey  years  are  poor  because  of  excessive  rain.  In  June,  1902, 
there  was  11.64  inches  of  rainfall.  June,  1911  represents  the  opposite  ex- 
treme, with  .76  inch,  and  was  also  poor.  Abundant  rain  in  advance  of  the 
hcneyflow  is  of  great  importance,  particularly  in  the  month  of  May.  When 
there  is  5  inches  or  more  of  rain  in  May  an  abundant  honey  harvest  sel- 
dom fails. 

It  is  also  shown  that  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  during  the  previous  winter 
tends  to  favor  a  good  yield  of  honey.  The  abundance  of  snow  provides 
both  available  moisture  and  protection  to  the  clover  plants  during  the  cold 
months. 

A  rainy  day  is,  of  course,  unequal  to  a  clear  one  for  honey  production, 
and  the  fact  is  shown  that  best  yields  are  gathered  on  the  days  just  pre- 
ceding and  following  the  rains.  A  gradual  increase  in  honey  stored  is  ap- 
parent each  day  following  a  rain,  until  the  fourth  day,  when  it  begins 
gradually  to  decline. 

Wind. 

An  average  of  results  for  200  days  -shows  that  south  winds  are  slightly 
more  favorable,  probably  due  to  the  warmer  and  clearer  weather.  East 
winds  are  shown  to  be  somewhat  unfavorable,  probably  due  to  the  clouds 
and  rains  which  frequently  accompany  them.  (This  does  not  apply  every- 
where.) 

Temperature. 

It  is  generally  recognized  among  beekeepers  that  hot  weather  is  most 
favorable  for  nectar  secretion.  The  above  records .  show  that  the  hot 
months  do  yield  better  than  the  cooler  ones,  this  being  especially  notice- 
able in  the  months  of  May  and  September,  which  are  often  too  cool  in 
Iowa  for  best  production.  It  was  found  that  little  honey  was  stored  at  a 
temperature  below  70  degrees  and  that  90  per  cent  of  the  entire  amount 
gathered  was  at  temperatures  between  80  and  100  degrees.  Days  attaining 
a  maximum  between  80  and  90  degrees  are  the  best  yielding  days,  being 
slightly  better  than  those  with  higher  temperaturees.  A  variation  in  the 
temperature  seems  to  favor  nectar  secretion.  Mr.  Kenoyer  was  able  to 
show  experimentally  that  low  temperatures  favor  the  accumulation  of 
nectar.     Days,  then,  with  a  wide  range  of  temperature  favored  the  bees. 

A  cold  winter  previous  to  the  honeyflow  cannot  be  said  to  be  benefi- 
cial, yet  it  is  shown  that  it  is  not  detrimental.  A  warm  March,  however, 
often  favors  a  good  season.  This  is  explained  as  due  to  the  favorable 
conditions  for  building  up  the  colonies  of  bees  in  spring  as  well  as  to  the 
increased  vigor  of  the  clover  plants  through  lack  of  severe  weather  at  the 
start  of  the  growing  season. 

Kenoyer's   Conclusions. 

"Mr.  Kenoyer  concludes  that,  1,  June  yields  56  per  cent  of  the  an- 
nual hive  increase  in  honey,  with  about  half  the  remainder  gathered 
in  July.  2.  A  large  June  increase  indicates  a  good  year.  3.  There  is 
an  evident  alternation  between  good  and  poor  years.  4.  A  good  year 
has  a  rainfall  slightly  above  the  average,  the  honey  season  being  pre- 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  275 

ceded  by  an  autumn,  winter  and  spring  with  more  than  the  average 
precipitation.  5.  A  rainy  May  scarcely  fails  to  precede  a  good  honey 
season.  6.  South  wind  seems  favorable  and  east  wind  unfavorable.  7. 
The  yield  shows  a  gradual  depression  preceding  and  a  gradual  increase 
until  about  the  fourth  day  following  a  rainy  day,  after  which  it  re- 
mains fairly  constant  until  about  the  fourteenth  day  following  a  rain. 
8.  Good  honey  months  average  slightly  higher  in  temperature  than 
poor,  this  being  especially  true  of  the  spring  and  fall  months.  9.  Clear 
days  are  favorable  to  the  production  of  honey.  10.  Yield  is  best  on 
days  having  a  maximum  temperature  of  80  to  90  degrees.  11.  A  wide 
daily  range  of  temperature  is  favorable  for  a  good  yield.  12.  A  low 
barometer  is  favorable  for  a  good  yield.  13.  The  fluctuations  in  the 
yield  for  a  producing  period  seem  to  be  closely  correlated  to  the 
temperature  range  and  the  barometric  pressure,  acting  jointly.  14.  A 
cold  winter  has  no  detrimental  effect  on  the  yield  of  the  succeeding 
season,  but  a  cold  March  reduces  it.  IS.  A  winter  of  heavy  snowfall 
is,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  followed  by  a  larger  honey  yield. 

WEST   VIRGINIA— Honey   Sources   of. 

Willows,  pollen  and  some   nectar. 
Red  maple,  pollen  and   some  nectar. 
Arbutus,  slight  value. 
Peach,  important  for  nectar. 
Cherry,  important  for  nectar  and  pollen. 
Redbud  (Judas  tree),  contributing  nectar  and  pol.en. 
June  berry,  slight   value. 
Hawthorn,  or  haw,  pollen  and  nectar. 
Apple,  occasional  surplus. 
Dandelion,  valuable  pollen   and  nectar. 
Azalea   (pink),   some   nectar   and   pollen. 
Huckleberry,  nectar  and  pollen. 

Tupelo,   pepperidge,    sour   or    black    gum,    valuable     source     of    nectar, 
yields  surplus. 

Wild  raspberry,  valuable  for  surplus. 

Tulip-tree  or  poplar,  extremely  valuable  as  a  surplus  plant. 

Black   locust,   important   surplus   plant. 

Sumac,   yields   nectar   abundantly. 

Strawberry,  important  in  nectar. 

Alsike  clover,  very  valuable   to   beekeepers,  increasing  in   popularity. 

Holly,  important   source   of  pollen. 

White   clover,  chief  surplus   in  certain   sections. 

Chestnut,  some  nectar  and  pollen. 

Chinquapin,  yields,  but  of  poor  flavor. 

Basswood  or  linn,  heavy  yielder  of  excellent   surplus. 

Sourwood,   very    important,   yields    extra    abundant. 

Swamp   milkweed,   surplus    in    some    localities. 

Sweet   clover,  dependent  for   surplus. 

Blue   devil,  or  viper's   bugloss,   important. 

Buckwheat,   excellent   yielder   in    certain   years. 

Goldenrod,  contributory. 

Asters,  yield  surplus. 


276 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Willowherb,  yields  surplus  in  abundance. 
— Chas.  A.  Reece,  Bulletin  No.  33,  W.  Virginia  Department  of  Agriculture. 

WHITE  ALDER,  see  Pepperbush. 

WHITE  BRUSH   (Lippia  Hgustrina). 

White  brush  is  a  very  common  shrub  throughout  south  Texas.  It  has 
some  resemblance  to  the  Indian  currant  of  the  Northern  States,  except 
that  it  is  larger  in  size.  It  has  long  sprays  of  fragrant  white  flowers  which 
appear  several  times  during  the  year,  following  rains.  According  to  H.  B. 
Parks,  it  yields  little  honey  during  the  regular  blooming  period  of  spring, 
but  during  the  rain-induced  bloom,  in  late  fall,  it  yields  heavily. 

In  the  lower  Rio  Grande  Valley,  beekeepers  reported  to  the  author 
that  the  blooming  period  is  short,  but  that  it  usually  yields  well,  while  the 
bloom  lasts.  In  many  localities  similar  reports  are  received.  Most  bee- 
keepers regard  the  honey  as  of  good  quality,  but  the  plant  not  dependable. 
In  seasons  when  there  are  frequent  heavy  rains  considerable  honey  is  har- 
vested, as   it  blooms   after  every  heavy  rain. 


l-i. 


Hi.      Blossom  and  leaf  of  white   clover 


WHITE  CLOVER  (Trifolium  repens). 

White  clover  undoubtedly  holds  first  place  as  a  honey  plant  in  Amer- 
ica. It  is  important  as  a  source  of  nectar  from  Maine  to  Nebraska  and 
south  to  Kentucky  and  Missouri.  In  all  the  Northeastern  States  it  is  one 
of  the  principal  sources  of  nectar  and,  in  many  localities,  it  stands  alone 
as  the  source  of  marketable  surplus.  Remove  white  clover,  and  bee- 
beekeeping  would  be  a  poor  dependence  in  a  large  portion  of  this  great 
area.  Alsike  is  similar  in  yield  and  quality  of  its  honey,  but  it  is  not  so 
widely  spread.    The  white  clover  plant  is  a  perennial  and  establishes  itself 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  277 

in  pastures,  along  roadsides  and  in  waste  places  everywhere.  It  is  a  good 
lawn  plant  and  holds  its  own  with  bluegrass  in  a  way  that  few  plants 
will  do. 

It  yields  more  heavily  in  the  northern  part  of  its  range.  One  Mi- 
nesota  beekeeper  reports  that  a  yield  of  less  than  200  pounds  per  colony 
from  white  clover  is  uncommon.  The  author  kept  bees  in  southern  Iowa 
for  many  years,  and  it  was  a  rare  season  when  the  yield  in  that  locality, 
totaled  200  pounds  per  colony.  In  northern  Iowa  the  average  yield  is 
much  better  than  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State. 

Best  yields  come  in  seasons  following  a  year  of  excessive  rainfall.  In 
wet  years  the  conditions  favor  the  rooting  of  thousands  of  new  plants, 
which  are  ready  to  produce  a  crop  of  nectar  the  following  summer.  Most 
readers  of  beekeeping  literature  are  familiar  with  Dr.  C.  C.  Miller's  phe- 
nomenal crop  harvested  in  1913.  From  72  colonies  of  bees  he  harvested 
more  than  19,000  finished  sections  of  honey,  or  more  than  an  average  of 
266  sections  per  colony.  His  best  colony  produced  402  sections  of  white 
clover  honey.  The  crop  was  due  to  a  favorable  season,  combined  with  ex- 
pert management.  The  flow  was  unusually  long,  lasting  from  early  June 
to  late  August. 

White  clover  yields  best  when  the  weather  is  hot,  with  plenty  of 
moisture  in   the   soil. 

Honey  from  white  clover  is  of  the  best  quality.  It  is  mild  in  flavor, 
light  in  color  and  commands  the  highest  prices  in  most  markets.  It  is  the 
one  honey  of  high  quality  produced  in  sufficient  quantity  to  fill  a  distinct 
demand   for   long  periods  of  time. 

Most  people  prefer  white  clover  honey  to  the  somewhat  more  spicy 
flavors  of  alfalfa  or  sweet  clover,  though  in  color  they  are  similar.  Alfalfa 
grown  in  southern  California  is  of  a  different  color  and  flavor  from  that 
grown  in  the  Mountain  States  of  Idaho,  Utah,  Colorado,  etc. 

WHITE  IRON  BARK,  see  Eucalyptus. 
WHITE  SNAKE-ROOT,  see  Boneset. 
WHITEWOOD,   see    Basswood,  also    Tulip-Poplar. 

WILD  ALFALFA  or  DEER  CLOVER  (Lotus  glaber). 

Wild  alfalfa  is  also  known  as  wild  broom,  deerweed  and  tanglefoot. 
In  California  it  is  regarded  as  an  important  source  of  honey  over  a  large 
part  of  the  State.  It  is  a  plant  growing  two  to  three  feet  high,  with  a 
woody  stem  at  the  base.  The  flowers  are  yellow,  later  turning  red.  Some 
years  the  plant  is  very  abundant,  then  it  dies  out  for  a  time,  so  that  it 
varies  greatly  from  year  to  year.  The  blooming  season  is  from  June  to 
September. 

We  quote   Richter  as  follows  : 

'"A  very  erratic  honey  producer.  Some  years,  in  some  sections, 
yielding  twice  as  much  as  the  sages;  this  is  true  for  either  the  coast 
or  the  valley  side  of  the  coast  ranges,  yet  a  good  wild  alfalfa  flow 
on  the  east  coast  does  not  necessarily  mean  such  is  the  case  on  the 
west  side.  Beekeepers  report  wild  alfalfa  honey  as  being  white,  light 
amber  and  at  times  with  a  characteristic  greenish  tinge.      This  is  one 


278 


AMERICAN  HOXEY  PLANTS 


of  the  main  honey  plants  of  the  Coalinga  district.  This  plant,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Z.  Quincy,  of  Ramona,  upon  reaching  its  second  year  of 
growth,  after  a  mountain  fire,  is  said  to  give  us  a  great  amount  of 
nectar." 

WILD   BALSAM  APPLE,  see  Wild  Cucumber. 

WILD  BERGAMOT,  see  Horsemint. 

WILD   BUCKWHEAT,   see   Erigonum,   also   Bindweed. 

WILD   CHERRY    (Prunus   serotina). 

The  wild  cherries  are  widely  distributed  over  the  North  American  Con- 
tinent, and  beekeepers  who  live  in  timbered  sections  may  expect  to  find 
one  or  more  species  within   reach.     The  photograph   shown  herewith,  Fig- 


ossoms  and  leaves  of  wild  cherry. 


ure  145,  is  of  the  wild  black  cherry,  which  is  a  large  tree  with  reddish- 
brown  branches  and  oblong  taper-pointed  leaves.  This  tree  is  common  in 
the  woods  of  Newfoundland,  Ontario  and  Manitoba,  south  to  Florida 
and  Arizona.  There  is  a  smaller  tree  with  very  similar  flowers,  the  choke 
cherry  (P.  virginiana)  to  be  found  over  much  the  same  territory,  while 
the  western  choke  cherry,  or  western  wild  cherry  (P.  demissa),  ranges 
from  Dakota,  Kansas  and  New  Mexico  west  to  California  and  British 
Columbia. 

The  larger  tree  P.  serotina,  is  also  said  to  occur  in  Mexico,  Peru  and 
Columbia.     There    is   also   a   varietal   form   known   as    the   mountain    black 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  279 

cherry,  found  in  southwestern  Virginia,  Georgia  and  Alabama.  It  is 
found  on  the  open  rocky  summits  of  the  higher  altitudes.  This  form  is  a 
tree  25  to  35  feet  high,  with  very  rough  bark  and  drooping  branches.  The 
wild  red  cherry,  or  pigeon  cherry  (P.  pennsylvanica)  is  common  in  the 
Northwestern    States,   and   secretes    nectar   freely. 

Both  leaves  and  seeds  of  all  these  forms  are  poisonous,  although  the 
fruit  is  edible.  There  seem  to  be  well  authenticated,  cases  of  poisoning  of 
cattle  from  eating  the  leaves,  and  of  children  dying  from  swallowing  the 
seeds.  Pammel,  in  his  book  of  poisonous  plants,  gives  an  extended  de- 
scription of  the  chemical  action  in  such  cases.  The  poisonous  property 
of  all  species  of  cherry  leaves,  according  to  authorities  quoted  there,  is 
due  to  prussic  acid.  The  poison  does  not  exist  as  such  in  the  growing 
plant,  but  by  the  action  of  moisture  and  a  vegetable  ferment  which  exist 
in  the  plant,  a  complicated  chemical  reaction  takes  place  when  the  leaves 
are  separated  from  the  stem.  Wild  cherry  bark  is  used  to  some  extent 
in  medicine. 

Wild  cherries  are  not  often  reported  as  valuable  sources  of  nectar. 
Kichter  lists  the  western  choke  cherry  as  a  source  of  hone}-  in  California, 
and  Lovell  mentions  the  wild  red  cherry  in  the  Eastern  States.  The  writer 
has  a  sample  of  wild  cherry  honey  sent  to  him  from  the  apiary  of  W.  S. 
Pangburn,  of  Jones  County,  Iowa,  having  a  distinct  cherry  taste  and  bright 
yellow  color.  After  two  years  it  shows  no  trace  of  granulation,  although 
subject  to  all  changes  of  temperature  of  Iowa  climate,  both  summer  and 
winter.  All  but  few  of  the  samples  of  honey  in  the  collection  have  candied 
under  similar  conditions. 

Since  in  the  Northern  States  it  blooms  after  the  domestic  fruits  and 
just  before  the  opening  of  white  clover,  it  should  prove  of  considerable 
value  where  present  in  quantity. 

WILD   CHINA  (Sapindus  drummondi).     See  also  CHINA  TREE. 

The  wild  China  tree,  also  known  as  chinaberry,  soapberry,  or  um- 
brella tree,  is  a  common  shade  tree  in  the  Southeastern  States.  It  is  also 
found  in  the  Southwestern  States  to  some  extent.  In  Alabama  it  is  a  con- 
spicuous feature  of  the  grounds  about  the  homes  of  rich  and  poor  alike, 
quantities  of  the  amber  colored  berries  hanging  after  the  leaves  have 
fallen.  It  is  cultivated  to  a  less  extent  in  Texas  and  California  as  an  orna- 
mental. It  also  occurs  commonly  in  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  The  Span- 
ish name  for  this  tree  is  "jaboncillo." 

It  is  frequently  mentioned  as  a  honey  plant  in  the  Southern  States, 
but  is  probably  not  sufficiently  common  in  many  places  to  be  important. 
It  is  sometimes  confused  with  the  China  tree  (Melia  azedarach),  which  see. 

WILD   CRAB   APPLE,  see   Crab   Apple. 

WILD    CUCUMBER    (Echinocystis   lobata). 

The  wild  cucumber,  or  wild  balsam  apple  (Fig.  146)  is  a  climbing  vine 
common  along  streams  from  New  England  to  Texas.  It  is  also  commonly 
cultivated  as  a  shade  for  arbors  and  porches.     The  plant  is  an  annual  and 


280 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


comes  from  the  seed  each  year.  There  are  few  localities  where  it  is  suf- 
ficiently abundant  to  be  of  value  to  the  beekeeper,  and  it  is  seldom  men- 
tioned among  honey  plants.  However,  in  a  few  localities  along  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  it  is  reported  as  quite  an  important  source  of  nectar  in 
mid-summer.  On  river  bottoms  it  is  sometimes  to  be  found  in  great 
abundance.     The  honey  is  reputed  to  be  white  and  of  good  flavor. 


Fig.  146.     Blossom,  fruit  and  leaf  of  wild  cucumber. 
WILD    CURRANT,  see   Currant,   also   Barberry. 

WILD    HOLLYHOCK    (Sidalcea    malvaeflora).      CHECKER-BLOOM. 

The  wild  hollyhock  is  common  in  the  valleys  and  plains  of  California, 
where  it  is  of  some  importance  as  a  honey  plant.  It  is  reported  as  of  spe- 
cial importance  in  the  Imperial  Valley.  Related  species  occur  in  New 
Mexico  and  north  to  Utah. 


WILD   LIME-TREE,  see  Tupelo. 
WILD   OLIVE,   see   Oleaster. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


281 


WILD  PARSNIP   (Pastinaca  sativa). 

The  wild  parsnip,  introduced  from  Europe, 


has  spread  over  a  wide  area 


Wild  parsnip 


from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  coast.  (Fig.  147).  It  is  common  along  rail- 
roads and  highways  everywhere.  The  small  yellow  flowers,  which  are 
borne  in  clusters  like  an  open  umbrella,  are  attractive  to  a  large  variety 
of  insects.  The  nectar,  apparently,  is  never  very  abundant,  hence  it  is 
not  an  important  source  of  honey,  although  the  plant  is  sometimes  very 
plentiful.     (See   Parsnip). 

WILD  PENNYROYAL  (Satureja  rigidi). 

Wild  pennyroyal  (Fig.  148)  is  a  square-stemmed  plant  of  the  mint  fam- 
ily that  grows  abundantly  on  the  sandy  pine  lands  of  the  south  half  of 
Florida.  It  begins  blooming  in  December  in  the  southern  part  of  its  range, 
and  blooms  till  early  in  March.  Weather  conditions  are  too  uncertain  dur- 
ing the  winter  months  to  favor  storing  much  surplus  honey.  However,  ac- 
cording to  Poppleton  (Review,  Jan.,  1893),  it  is  the  source  of  some  surplus, 
and  from  it  the  bees  are  stimulated  to  begin  heavy  brood-rearing  about 
Christmas.  In  an  occasional  season  a  fair  amount  of  surplus  was  secured, 
sometimes  as  much  as  50  pounds  per  colony.  The  honey  is  said  to  be  light 
in  color,  good  flavor  and  heavy  body — a  first-class  article. 


282 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


Blooming  as  it  does  in  the  winter  months,  it  is  invaluable  to  the  bee- 
keeper whose  bees  have  access  to  it.  If  no  surplus  is  secured,  it  serves  to 
fill  the  hives  with  bees  and  honey  at  an  important  season  and  to  prepare 
for  the  later  crops  to  follow. 


Wild  pennyroyal. 


WILD  RADISH,  see   Radish. 

WILD  SUNFLOWER,  see   Sunflower. 

WILD  SWEET  POTATO  VINE,  see  Bluevine. 

WILD  THYME,   see   Thyme. 


WILLOW  (Salix). 

In  the  Northern  States  the  blooming  of  the  pussy  willow  (Salix  dis- 
color) is  among  the  first  signs  of  spring.  It  is  a  small  tree,  growing  along 
streams  and  on  wet  lands.  Furnishing  as  it  does  about  the  first  honey  of 
the  season,  as  well  as  pollen  in  abundance,  it  is  highly  regarded  by  the 
beekeepers. 

There  are  about  160  species  of  willows,  mostly  confined  to  the  cooler 
and  temperate  regions  of  North  America.  Some  species  extend  their 
ranges  into  the  Arctic  regions,  where  the  vegetation  is  sparse.  While 
the  number  of  varieties  is  not  so  great  in  the  Southern  States,  it  is  re- 
garded as  valuable  in  the  Gulf  States  and  in  California.  As  an  example  of 
the  comparative  abundance  of  willows  North  and  South,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  four  species  are  recorded  for  Alabama  and  eighteen  for  Con- 
necticut. The  willows  bloom  too  early  in  the  spring  in  the  Northern 
States  for  the  bees  to  store  surplus  from  this  source,  but  both  nectar  and 
pollen  are  supplied  for  early  brood-rearing. 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


283 


In  Richter's  "Honey  Plants  of  California"  I  find  reference  to  numer- 
ous localities  where  surplus  has  been  secured  from  the  willows.  It  is  said 
to  be  "a  dark  amber  and  bitter  honey."  In  a  few  other  southern  localities 
surplus  yields  from  willow  are  reported.  The  flowers  on  one  tree  will 
be  staminate  and  on  another  pistillate.  Unlike  most  plants,  the  organs  of 
both  sexes  are   not  found  on  the   same  plant. 


Fig.   149.     The 


me   ot   the 


loom    in   the   Nort'.i. 


WILLOW    HERB,  see  Fireweed. 

WINTER  HUCKLEBERRY,  see  Farkle-Berry. 


WISCONSIN— Honey   Flora   of. 

The  more  important  honey  plants  of  Wisconsin,  named  in  the  order 
they  bloom,  are:  Dandelion,  May  1  to  June  1;  white  and  alsike  clover, 
furnishing  most  of  the  surplus  honey,  June  1  to  August  1  ;  basswood  or 
linden,  July  1  to  July  20;  sweet  clover,  July  15  to  August  15;  willow  herb, 
cr  fireweed,  buckwheat,  goldenrod,  Spanish  needle,  asters  and  many  fall 
flowers,  in  late  summer  and  fall.— N.  E.  and  L.  V.  France,  Bulletin  264, 
Agr.  Ex.  Sta.  Wisconsin. 


284  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

WISTERIA. 

The  wisteria  is  a  climbing  vine  widely  grown  as  an  ornamental.  There 
are  several  varieties  introduced  from  the  Old  World.  They  are  attractive 
to  the  bees,  but  probably  nowhere  sufficiently  common  to  be  of  much 
value. 

WOLF  BERRY,  see  Oleaster. 

WOODBINE,  see  Virginia  Creeper. 

WOOD    SAGE,  see   Germander. 

WOOLY   WHITE  DROUGHT  WEED,  see  Turkey  Mullein. 

WYOMING— Honey  Sources  of. 

Alfalfa  and  sweet  clover  yield  large  amounts  of  surplus  honey  in  irri- 
gated valleys.  Willows,  gum-weed,  cleome,  dandelion,  etc  are  minor 
sources. 


XYZ 


YAUPON,  see  Holly. 


YELLOW  JASMINE  (Gelsemium  sempervirens). 

The  yellow  jasmine  is  a  well-known  poisonous  climbing  vine  common 
to  the  Southern  States  from  Virginia  to  Florida  and  west  to  Mexico.  Its 
yellow  flowers,  in  short  axillary  clusters,  appear  in  early  spring  (February 
and  March)  and  are  very  fragrant.  The  vine  climbs  over  trees  to  a  great 
height,  often  30  feet  or  more.  It  yields  pollen  and  probably  some  nectar. 
It  is  reported  as  poisonous  to  the  bees. 

"For  the  past  nine  years  I  have  observed,  commencing  with  the 
opening  of  the  yellow  jasmine  flowers,  a  very  fatal  disease  attacking 
the  young  bees  and  continuing  until  the  cessation  of  the  bloom.  The 
malady  would  then  cease  as  quickly  as  it  came.  The  symptoms  of  the 
poisoning  are:  The  abdomen  becomes  very  much  distended,  and  the 
bees  act  as  though  intoxicated.  There  is  great  loss  of  muscular  power. 
The  bee,  unless  too  far  gone,  slowly  crawls  out  of  the  hive  and  very 
soon  expires.  The  deaths  in  twenty-four  hours,  in  strong  stocks  with 
much  hatching  brood,  may  amount  to  one-half  pint,  often  much  more. 
My  observations  have  been  verified  by  dozens  of  intelligent  beekeep- 
ers breeding  pure  Italians  where  Gelsemium  abounds." — Dr.  J.  P.  H. 
Brown,  American  Bee  Journal,  Nov.,  1879. 

As  to  the  effect  on  animals  poisoned  by  the  plant  we  quote  Pammel 
as  follows  : 

"Dr.  Winslow  gives  the  toxicological  effect  on  animals  as  follows  : 
Muscular  weakness,  especially  in  the  forelegs,  staggering  gait  and 
falling.  These  symptoms  are  followed  by  convulsive  movements  of 
the  head,  forelegs  and  sometimes  of  the  hindlegs.     The  respiration  is 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS  285 

slow   and   feeble,  temperature   reduced,   and  there   is   sweating.     Death 
occurs  because  of  respiratory  failure."— Manual  of  Poisonous  Plants. 
With   reference   to   the   condition   described  by  Dr.   Brown,  the   matter 


Fig.  150.     Blossoms  of  the  yellow-wood. 


280 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


was    referred    to   T.   W.   Livingston,    of    Leslie,     Georgia  ,    who   writes     as 

follows  : 

"I  have  for  many  years  noticed  the  disease  described.  I  have  seen 
the  same  disease  where  there  was  no  yellow  jasmine,  that  I  knew  of, 
but  much  more  of  it  where  that  plant  was  plentiful.  It  may  be  caused 
by  it.  It  was  told  several  years  ago  by  the  Florida  State  Chemist,  who 
had  analyzed  a  sample  of  honey  reported  as  poisoning  some  people, 
that  the  honey  contained  pollen  grains  from  yellow  jasmine." — March 
13,  1919. 

YELLOW  POPLAR,  see  Tulip  Tree. 
YELLOW   STAR  THISTLE,  see   Star  Thistle. 
YELLOW-TOPS,  see  Tarweed. 


Fig.  151.      Yucca  filamentosa  on  the  lawn  of  the  late 
Eugene  Secor. 


YELLOW  WOOD   (Cladrastis  lutea). 

The  yellow  wood  is  a   tree   confined  to  a  limited  range.     It  is   found 


AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 


287 


principally  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina.  While  it  may 
occur  to  some  extent  in  the  States  adjoining  the  three  mentioned,  it  is 
rare,  except  in  very  limited  areas.  It  is  recorded  as  occurring  on  shaded 
bluffs  in  the  Tennessee  Valley  in  Alabama,  and  may  be  looked  for  in 
similar  situations  in  Mississippi,  Georgia  or  South  Carolina.  The  flowers 
are  white,  as  may  be  seen  from  Figure  150,  and  appear  in  April  and  May. 
The  panicles  are  sometimes  a  foot  long.  According  to  the  notes  furnished 
by  J.  M.  Buchanan,  the  honey  has  a  strong,  distinctive  flavor  and  is  light 
amber  in  color. 


Fig.  152.     The  Spanish  bayonet  is  a  showy  plant  when 


The  wood  is  heavy  and  hard  and  yields  a  yellow  dye. 
as  Kentucky  yellow  wood  and  gopher  wood. 


It  is  known  also 


YERBA   BUENA   (Micromeria   chamissonis). 

Yerba  buena  is  a  trailing  perennial  herb  with  slender  stem  and  small, 
white,  solitary  flowers.  Jepson  gives  the  range  as  common  in  woods  near 
the  coast:  Humboldt  County,  Marin  County,  Berkeley,  San  Francisco,  Bel- 
mont, Monterey  and  southward  to  southern  California. 

Richter  states  that  it  is  considered  a  fair  honey  plant  in  places. 

YERBA  DEL  PESCADO,  see  Turkey   Mullein 


YERBA   SANTA   (Eriodictyon   trichocalyx). 

Yerba  santa  is  a  low  shrub  common  to  some  parts  of  California.    Rich- 
19 


288  AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

ter  lists  it  as  important  in  Ventura  County,  where  it  frequently  yields  sur- 
plus, blooming  in  June  and  July. 

YUCCA. 

Over  vast  areas  of  the  arid  west  there  is  little  for  the  bees.  A  few 
plants  stand  the  long  continued  periods  of  drought  even  where  there 
is  no  irrigation,  and  add  to  the  total  production  of  the  apiaries  in  the  irri- 
gated regions.  Among  the  attractive  plants  may  be  mentioned  the  yucca, 
also  called  Spanish  bayonet,  Spanish  dagger,  Adam's  needle,  mountain 
queen  and  Roman  candle.  There  are  about  a  dozen  species,  mostly  from 
Dakota  west  to  the  Pacific  and  southward.  They  are  common  in  Mexico 
and  Central  America.  They  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  sandy  sections 
along  the  Atlantic  Coast  from  North  Carolina  to  Florida  and  Louisiana. 

When  in  bloom  the  plant  is  very  ornamental.  A  single  tall  flower  stalk 
contains  many  large,  white  or  cream-colored  flowers.  In  many  localities 
where  the  plant  does  not  grow  wild,  it  is  grown  for  ornament,  as  in  Figure 
151,  which  shows  the  late  Eugene  Secor  admiring  a  beautiful  specimen 
that  grew  on  his  grounds. 

In  "Honey  Plants  of  California,"  Richter  lists  Yucca  whipplie  as  an 
important  source  of  nectar,  which,  in  localities  where  it  is  abundant,  yields 
surplus.     In  that  State  its  blooming  period  is  June  and  July. 


fc 


INDEX 


Acacia,  10,  116. 

amentacea,  13. 

berlandiera,  1,  13. 

constricta,  21. 

decurrens  mollis,  11,  58. 

farnesiana,  9,  10,  12. 

greggii,  10,  13,  21. 

lingifolia,   11 

melanoxylon,   11. 

pycnantha,  58. 

roemeriana,  13. 
Acer,  47,  59,  151,  153,  268,  271. 
Achillea,  15. 
Actinomeris,  102. 
Adenostema,  58,  112. 
Aesculus,  49,  56,  151. 
Agastache,   101. 
Agave  americana,  57,  64. 

sisalana,  117. 
Ailanthus  glandulosa,  56,  265. 
Alabama,  Honey  Sources  of,  13. 
Alaska,  Honey  Sources  of,  13. 
Alberta,  Honey  Sources  of,  15. 
Alder,  15,  98,  272. 
Alder,  white,  191. 
Alexander,   E.  W.,  50. 
Alfalfa,  7,  8,  16,  21,  56,  131,  139   147, 
Alfilerilla,  56,  201. 
Algarroba,    115. 
Alligator  pear,  216. 
Allium,  181. 
Almond,  18,  20,  58. 
Alnus,  15. 
Alsike,  15,  19,  58,  131,  134,  135,  139, 

271. 
Althaea,  125. 
Ambrosia,  214. 
Amorpha,  93. 
Ampelopsis   quinquefolia,   48,  59. 

veitchii,  48. 
Anaqua,  140. 
Andromeda,  20,  96,  206. 
Angelica    tree,    123. 
Anthemis  cotula,  37,  59,  151,  156. 
Apium  graveolens,  64. 
Apple,  20,  96,  139,  150. 
Apocynum,  48,  87,  272. 
Apricot,  21,  96. 
Aralia,   123. 


Arbutus,  21. 

menziesii,  58,  149,  272. 
Arbute  tree,  149. 
Arctium  Lappa,  52. 
Arctostaphylos,  Uva  ursi,  48,  49,  153. 
Argemone,  208. 

Arizona,  Honey  Sources  of,  21. 
Arizona   buckthorn,   113. 
Arkansas,  Honey  Sources  of,  22. 
Asclepias,  59,  100,  151,  159. 
Ash,  22. 

Asparagus,  22,  57. 
Aspen,  22. 
Aster,  22,  23,  24,  25,  75,  87,  100,  134,  135, 

139,  147,  150,  155. 

acuminatus,  28. 

azureus,  26. 

cordifolius,  27. 

dumosus,  28. 

ericoides,  28. 

lateriflorus,  27,  28. 

macrophyllus,  25,  27. 

multiflorus,  28. 

paniculatus,  28. 

puniceus,  24,  27. 

salicifolius,   27. 
271.    tradescanti,  27. 

umbellatus,  27. 

vimineus,  22,  28. 
Astragalus,  58,  145,  159. 
Avicennia  nitida,  39. 
Avicennia,   39. 
Avocado,   116. 
150,Azalea,  28. 

Baldwin,  E.  G.,  20,  96,  152. 

Balloon    vine,   28. 

Banana,  28,   116. 

Barberry,  31. 

Barnaby's  thistle,  243. 

Basil,  32. 

Basswood,  8,  32,  76,  134,  135,  150. 

Bay,  100,  149,  216. 

Bean,  34. 

Bearberry,  48,   153. 

Bee  balm,  34. 

Beech,  34. 

Beggar  ticks,  59,  135. 

Bentley,  G.  M.,  256. 


290  INDEX 

Berberis,  31.  California,  Honey  Sources  of,  9,  56,  70. 

trifoliata,  31.  Callotropsis,  206. 

pinnata,  31,  56.  Calluna,  121. 

nervosa,  182.  Campanilla,  60. 

Berchemia,  216.  Canada   thistle,  48,  61,   150. 

Betula,  35.  Cantaloupe,  59,  74,  156. 

Bidens,  59,  238.  Cardiospermum,  28. 

Bindweed,  34,  35.  Carduus,  61,  206. 

Birch,  35.  Carpet  grass,  57,  61,  116. 

Bird  cherry,  48.  Carr,  E.  C,  176. 

Bittersweet,  35.  Carrot,  61,  150. 

Bitterweed,  13,  35.  Cascara   sagrada,  50,  56,  272. 

Black  haw,  38.  Cash,  John  W.,  97. 
Blackberry,  22,  37,  58,  99,  135,  139,  147,Cassia,  189. 

150.  Castanea   dentata,  67. 
Bloodroot,  40.  pumila,  70. 

Blueberry,  15,  41,  48,  87.  Castor  bean,  62. 

Blue  curls,  41,  42,  57.  Castor  oil  plant,  58. 

Blue  thistle  ,43,  57.  Catalpa,  63,  116. 

Bluevine,  43,  162.  Catclaw,  11,  13,  21. 

Blueweed,  45.  Caterpillar  phacelia,  57. 

Boneset,  44,  45,  87,  134,  135,  150.  Cat's  ear,  63,  272. 

Borage,  46.  Catnip,  9,  63,  135. 

Borago  officinalis,  46.  Ceanothus,  58,   165,   176. 

Boston  ivy,  48.  Celastrus   scandens,  35. 

Box  elder,  47,  134.  Celery,  9,  64. 

Brassica,  56,  151,  263.  Celtis,  115. 

campestris,  58,  166.  Centaurea,  57,  60,  206,  243. 

napus,  214.  cyanus,  64. 

nigra,  56,  166.  militensis,  64. 

oleracea,  56.  Centromadia  pungens,  57,  240. 

Brazil,  48.  Century  plant,  57,  64. 
British    Columbia,   Honey    Sources       Cephalanthus  occidentalis,  55,  57,  100, 

of,  48.  150. 

Broomweed,  49.  Cerasus,  58,  59,  99. 

Brown,  Dr.  J.  H.  P.,  100,  284.  Cercis,  217. 

Brunnichia   cirrhosa,  54.  Chamise,  112. 

Buchanan,  J.  M.,  45,  261.  Chapman  honey  plant,  65. 

Buckbrush,  133.  Charlock,  214. 

Buckeye,  49,  56.  Chayote,  66. 

Buckthorn,  50.  Checker  bloom,  280. 
Buckwheat,  8,  50,  75,  87,  135,  139,  150.  Cherokee  rose,  66. 

Buffalo  bean,   145.  Cherry,  67,  96. 

Buffalo   currant,  54.  Chestnut,  67. 

Bull  bay,   149.  China  berry,  100. 

Bumelia  angustifolia,  75.  China   tree,  68,  69. 

lanuginosa,  113.  Chinese  sumac,  265. 

lycioides,  74.  Chinquapin,   69,   70. 

Bum-wood,  206.  Chittam,  50,  182,  272. 

Bur  clover,  53,  56,  116.  Choke  cherry,  48,  59,  278. 

Burdock,  52.  Christmas  berry,  56,  70,  72. 

Burton,  S.  H.,  43.  Chrysopsis,  100. 

Bush  honeysuckle,  53.  Chrysothamnus,  57,  213. 

Butterweed,  55.  Cirsium  arvense,  48,  150. 

Button  bush,  55,  100,  135,  150.  Cirsium   lanceolatum,  57. 

Button-weed,  55.  Cissus,  81,  236. 

Button-willow,  55,  57.  Citrullus,   59,  273. 

Buxus,  206.  Citrus,  56,  112,  116,  142. 

Claytonia,  15,  241. 

Cabbage,  56.  Qadastris  lutea,  286, 


INDEX 


291 


Clematis,  59,  71,  74. 

Cleome  integrifolia,  56,  223. 

Cleome  spinosa,  239. 

Cleomella  angustifolia,  71. 

Clerodendron,  206. 

Clethra,  76,  155,  190,  191. 

CHftonia,  260. 

Climbing  milkweed,  43. 

Cloud  berry,  15. 

Clover,  72,  83,  87,  155,  218. 

Cocklebur,  73. 

Cocoanut  palm,  183. 

Cocos,  183. 

Coffee  berry,  50,  56. 

Colias  eurytheme,  22. 

Colima,  73 

Collier,  W.  C,  48. 

Colorado,  Honey  Sources  of,  73 

Colubrina,  223. 

Coma,  74. 

Condalia,  48. 

Coneflower,  75. 

Connecticut,  Honey  Sources  of,  75 

Convolvulus,  58,  162. 

Cook,  A.  J.,  101,  159,  180,  227. 

Coral  bean,  76. 

Coral  berry,  133. 

Coral   sumac,  206. 

Cordelia  obovata,  48. 

Coreopsis  gigantea,  59. 

Corn,  59. 

Cornflower,  60. 

Cornus,  88. 

Corylus,   119. 

Cotton,  8,  13,  58,  77,  147. 

Cotton  belt,  8,  258. 

Cottonwood,  22,  211. 

Coulter,  J.  M.,  76,  233. 

Cowan,  T.  W.,  194. 

Cow  itch,  81. 

Cowpea,  81. 

Crabapple,  83. 

Crane.  J.  E.,  259. 

Crataegus,    117. 

Cream  cups,  59. 

Crimson  clover,  83,  139. 

Crocus,  83. 

Croton,  83. 

Crowfoot,   134. 

Crownbeard,  84. 

Cucumber,   59,  84,    135,    150. 

Cucumis,  59,  84,  150,  156. 

Cucurbita,  59,  211,  243. 

Culver's  root,  85. 

Cup  plant,  84. 

Currant.  31,  54,  58,  74.  85,  135,  150. 

Cuscuta,  59. 

Cynara,  59. 

Cyngium,  57. 

Cynoglossum,  130. 


Cyrilla,  259. 
Cystis,  261. 
Cytisus,  206. 

Dadant,  C.  P.,  25,  232. 

Dadant,  Chas.,  112. 

Dahoon,  125. 

Dandelion,  48,  74,  86,  87,  131,  134,  135, 

144,  150,  155,  272. 
Daphne,  206. 
Date  palm,  183. 
Daucus  carota,  61,  150. 
Deer  clover,  277. 
Delaware,  Honey  Sources  of,  87. 
Devil's  claw,  13. 
Devil's    hair,   71. 
Devil's  shoestring,  43. 
Diervilla    Lonicera,   53. 
Diodia   teres,  55. 
Diospyros,  192. 
Dipsacus,  255. 
Doctor-gum,  206. 
Dodder,  59. 
Dogbane,  48,  87,  88. 
Dogwood,  88,  96. 
Doolittle,  G.  M.,  235,  255. 
Duranta,  261. 

Ebony,  Texan,  256. 

Echinocystis,  279. 

Echinops  sphaerocephalus,  65. 

Ec hium  vulgar e,  45. 

Ehretia,  140. 

Elaeagnus   hortensis,   180. 

argentea,    181. 
Elder,  15,  60,  89. 
Elm,  90,  134,  139. 
Encelia  californica,  60. 
Ensltnia,  268. 
Epigea,  21. 
Epilobium   angustifolium,  49,   95,   151, 

271. 
Eremocarpus,  265. 

setigerus,   58. 
Ericaceae,  204. 
Eriobotrya,   116,   147. 
Eriodictyon,  57,  287. 
Eriogonum,  56,  91. 
Eriophyllum,  60. 
Erodium,  56,  116,  202. 
Eryngium   articulatum,  43. 
Ervthrina,   116. 
Eschscholtzia,  208. 

californica,  59. 
Esparcet,  231. 

Eucalyptus,  56,  57,  90,  91,   116. 
Eugenia,  116. 
Eupatorium,  45,  46,  150. 
Euphorbia,  59,  203,  204,  206,  236. 
Eysenhardtia,  223. 


292 


INDEX 


Fagopyrum,  SO,  150. 

Fagus  grandifolia,  34. 

False   indigo,  93. 

Farkle-berry,  94. 

Figwort,  58,  93,  94,  135. 

Filaree,  56,  116,  201,  202. 

Fireweed,  8,  15,  49,  94,  95,  131,  27J 

Florida,  Honey  Sources  of,  95. 

Foeniculum    vulgare,   58,  251. 

Forbes,  R.  H.,  22. 

Foster,  Wesley,  162. 

Fragaria,  244. 

France,  N.  E.  and  L.  V.,  283. 

Frasera,   162,   163. 

Fraxinus,  22. 

Fraxinus   oregona,   58. 

Frijolillo,  76. 

Fruit  bloom,  96. 

Fuller's  teasel,  255. 

Furze,  109. 

Gaillardia,  154. 

Gallberry,  96,  97,  125,  177. 

Gates,  B.  N.,  84,  155. 

Gaultheria,  182,  232. 

Gaura,  74,  97,  222. 

Gaylussacia,  48,  130. 

Gelsemium,  98,  284. 

Georgia,  Honey  Sources  of,  9<. 

Germander,  100. 

Giant  Hyssop,  101. 

Gilia,   101. 

Gleditsia,  127. 

Globe  artichoke,  59. 

Glycyrrhiza,  143. 

Golden  dewdrop,  261. 

Golden  honey  plant,  102. 

Goldenrod,  8,  25,  49,  57,  75,  100,  101, 

102,  103,  104,  105,  106,  107,  108,  135, 

139,  148,  150,  155,  272. 
Gonolobus  laevis,  43. 
Gooseberry,  59,  109,  135. 
Gorse,  58,  109,  110. 
Gossypium  herbaceum,  58,  77. 
Grape,  58,  59,   109,   135. 
Grape  fruit,  112. 
Grasses,  112. 
Greasewood,  58,  112. 
Greenbriar,  133. 

Grindelia  squarrosa,  73,  113,  131. 
Grossularia,  109. 
Groundsel,   55. 
Guaiacum,  237. 
Gum,  Black,  13,  22. 
Gum,  Eucalyptus,  56,  57,  91,  92. 
Gumbo,  180. 
Gum-elastic,  113. 
Gum-plant,   113. 
Gum-weed,  73,  113,  131,  272. 
Gutierrezia   texana,  49. 


Hackberry,  115. 

Haematoxylon,  116,  147. 

Harbison,  J.  S.,  56,  166,  263. 

Hasty,  E.  E.,  67. 

Hau  tree,   115. 

Hawaii,  Honey  Sources   of,   11 

Haw,  Black,  38. 

Hawthorne,  13,  99,  117. 

Hazelnut,  119. 

Heartsease,  22,  87,  119,  134,  139,  144, 

151,  155. 
Heather,  121. 

Hedge   nettle,  58,  122,  123. 
Helenium,  35,  37. 
Helianthus,  57,  59,  253,  272. 
Heliotrope,  58,  59,  123. 
Heliotropium,  58,  59,  123. 
Hemizonia,  57,  254. 
Hercules   club,   123. 
Heron's  bill,  202. 
Heracleum,  15. 
Hesperoyucca  whipplei,  56. 
Heteromeles  arbutifolia,  56,  70. 
Heterotheca  grandiflora,  60. 
Hickory,   124. 
Himalayan   berry,  58. 
Hippomane,   152. 
Hog-gum,  206. 

Holly,  22,  70,  99,  125,  147,  155. 
Hollyhock,  125. 

Honeydew,  22,  117,  126,  139,  202 
Honey  locust,  127. 
Honeysuckle,  60,  128. 
Honey  plant  regions,  8. 
Hops,  128. 
Hop-tree,  128. 
Horsemint,  129,  139,  148. 
Horse-chestnut,  49,  151. 
Horehound,  57,  124,  125,  139,  273. 
Hound's  tongue,  130. 
Huajillo,  10,  13. 

Huckleberry,  48,  87,  125,  130,  272. 
Huisache,  9,  10,  12. 
Humulus,  128. 
Hutchinson,  W.  Z.,  95,  220. 
Hydrophyllum,  269. 
Hypochaeris,  radicata,  63,  272. 
Hyssop,  Giant,  101. 

Idaho,  Honey  Sources  of,  131. 

Ilex,  97,  125. 

Illinois,  Honey  Sources  of,  134. 

Impatiens,  138. 

Indiana,  Honey  Sources  of,   134. 

Indian  corn,  132. 

Indian  currant,  133,  135. 

Indian  fig,  209. 

Indian  hemp,  131,  272. 

Indigo,  False,  92. 

Iowa,  Honey  Sources   of,  135. 


INDEX  293 

Ipomoea,  60.  Madrona,  58,  148,  272. 

Ironbark,  57,  92.  Magnolia,  100,  149. 

Ironweed,   135,   136.  Maine,  Honey   Sources   of,   150. 

Islay,  58.  Maize,  132. 

Malacothris  saxatilis,  60. 

Jackass  clover,  56,  137.  Mallow,  59,  151. 

Jasmine,  Yellow,  98.  Malus,  20,  83. 
Jepson,  W.  L.,  41,  50,  70,  101,  165,  192,    Malva,  59,   151. 

229,  240,  287.  Manchineel,  96,  152. 

Jerusalem    artichoke,   59.  Mangrove,  Black  39,  96,  116. 

Jewel-weed,   135,   137.  Manzanita,  57,  153. 

Judas-tree,   134.  Maple,  15,  59,  76,  87,  134,  135,  139,  151. 
Juglans,  270.  153,  155. 

Jussiaea  californica,  58,  273.  Marigold,   154. 

Marjoram,  154. 

Kalmia,   141,  204,  206.  Marrubium  vulgare,  57,  124,  125. 

Kansas,  Honey  Sources  of,  139.  Maryland,  Honey  Sources  of,  155. 

Kenoyer,  L.  A.,  198,  273,  274.  Matrimony  vine,  156. 

Kinnikinnick,  48,   149.  Mayweed,  37,  59,  151,  156. 

Knapweed,  243,  Medic,  Black,  39, 

Knockaway,   139.  Medicago  denticulata,  53,  56,  116 

Medicago  lupulina,  39,  59. 

Lactuca,  142.  Medicago  sativa,  16,  56. 

Lambkill,   141.  Melia  azedarach,  69. 

Lathyrus,  59,  117.  Melicope  ternata,  204. 

Laurel,  59,  141,  155.  Melons,  156. 

Laurel  tree,  216.  Melissa  officinalis,  34. 

Lawn  plant,  58.  Melilotus,  55,  58,  59,  151,  245. 

Lemon,  142.  Mendleson,  M.  H.,  192. 

Leonur'us,  164.  Mentha,  57,  59,  160. 

Lettuce,  142,  143.  Mentzelia,  74,   156. 

Lignum  vitae,  237.  Mesquite,  21,  116,  156,  157. 

Lilac,  58.  Metopium,  206. 

Lilac,   Mountain,   165.  Metrosideros,  116. 

Lima  bean,  56.  Merrill,   Dr.   J.   H.,   190. 

Lime,  143.  Mexican  clover,  158. 

Linden,  57,  139.  Michigan,  Honey  Sources  of,   158. 

Lippia   ligustrina  276.  Micromeria  chamissonis,  58,  287. 

Lippia  nodirlora,  57,  61.  Mignonette,  59,  158. 

Lippia  repens,  58,  61,  116.  Milkweed,  8,  59,  76,  135,  151,  159,  160, 
Liquorice,  143.  161,  262. 

Liriodendron,  261.  Milkweed,   climbing,  43. 

Livingston,  T.  W.,  286.  Miller,  A.  C,  223. 

Locality,  143.  Miller,  Dr.  C.  C.  65,  84,  277. 

Loco,  74,  145.  Minnesota,  Honey  Sources  of,  160. 
Locust,  13,  22,  ^8,  76,  99,  127,  135,  139.    Mint,  32,  160. 

145.  147,   151,   155,  223.  272.  Mississippi,  Honey  Sources  of,  161. 
Logwood,  48,  116,  147.  Missouri,  Honey  Sources  of,  162. 
Lonicera,  60,  128.  Mistletoe,  58,  162. 

Loquat,  116,  147.  Mohr,  Chas.,  36. 

Loosestrife,  Purple,  212.  Monarda,  129. 

Lotus  glaber,  56,  277.  Monardella,  lanceolata,  59. 

Louisiana,  Honey  Sources  of,  147.        Monotropa,  206. 

Lovell,  1.  H..  25,  37,  101,  103,  107,  131,     Montana,   Honev   Sources   of,   162. 

146,  151,  155,  279.  Monument  plant,  162,  163. 
Lupin,  59,  74,  117,  148.  Morning  glory,  58,  162. 
Lupinus,   59,   117,    148.  Motherwort,   164,  165. 
Lycanium,  179.  Mountain   lilac,  165. 
Lycinum,  156.  Musa  sapientum,  28,  116. 
Lythrum,  212.  Mustard,  56,  58,  135,  151,  166. 


294  INDEX 

Myrtle-leaf   dahoon,    125.  Papaver,  208. 

Paradise  flower,  13. 

Xabalus,   216.  Paritium,    115. 

Xahgoon  berry,  15.  Parkinsonia,  21,  223. 

Napa  thistle,  57.  Parks,  H.  B.,  15,  54,  66,  69„  178,  234. 

Nebraska,  Honey  Sources  of,  167.  Parsnip,  9,  189,  281. 

Nectar,  167,  194.  Parsnip,   cow,   15. 

Nectar  secretion,  167,  194.  Parthenocissus,  269. 

Xtgundo  aceroides,  47.  Partridge  pea,  96,  188,  189. 

Negundo   incisa,  270.  Pastinaca,  189,  281. 

Xepeta  Cataria,  63.  Peach,  96,  189. 

Xerium,  206.  Pear,  56,  96,  151,  189. 

Nevada,  Honey  Sources  of,  174.  Peas,  13. 
New  Brunswick,  Honey  Sources  of,    Pennsylvania,  Honey  Sources  of,  190 

174.  Pennyroyal   ,59,  95. 
New  Hampshire,  Honey  Sources  of,    Peony,  191. 

174.  Pepperbush,  191. 

New  Jersey,  Honey  Sources  of,  175.    Peppermint,  57. 

New  Jersey  tea,  176.  Pepper-tree,  56,  191,  192. 

New  Mexico,  Honey  Sources  of,  1/6.     Persea,  116,  216. 

New    York,   Honey   Sources   of,  177.     Persimmon,  99,  177,  192,  193. 

Xicotiana,  260.  Petalostemon,  208. 

Nonesuch,  59.  Phacelia,  57,  58,  192,  272. 

North   Carolina,  Honey   Sources  of,     Phaseolus,  34,  56. 

177.  Phillips,  E.  F.,  115,  117. 
North    Dakota,    Honey    Sources  of,     Phoenix,  183. 

178.  Phoradendron,  58,  162. 

Nova  Scotia,  Honey  Sources  of,  178.  Physiology  of  Nectar  Secretion,  194. 

Xyssa,  99,  263.  Picea,  241. 

Pieris,  206. 

Oak,  178.  Pigeon  berry,  50. 

Blue,  58.  Pigeon  cherry,  96. 

Live,  58  Pin  clover,  201,  202. 

Tanbark,  59.  Pine,  202. 

Valley,   58.  Pin   grass,  202. 

Ohio,  Honey  Sources  of,  179.  Pinney,  C.  L.,  153. 
Oklahoma,  Honey  Sources  of,  180.         Pinus,  202. 

Okra,  180.  Plantago  major,  60. 

Olea,  europaea,  58,  181.  Plantain,  60. 

Oleaster,   180.  Platystemon  californicus,  59. 

Olive,   58,   181.  Plum,  96,  99,  135,  151,  202. 

Olive,  wild,  180.  Poinsettia,  59,  203. 

Onion,   74,    181.  Poison  oak,  56. 

Onobrychis,  117,  231.  Poisonous   honey,  203. 

Ontario,  Honey  Sources  of,  181.  Poisonwood,  206. 

Opuntia,  56,  209,  210.  Pollen,  206. 

Orange,  56,  96,  181.  Pollen,  Importance  of,  8,  144. 

Oregon,  Honey  Sources   of,   182.  Pollination,    207. 

Oregon  ash,  22,  58.  Polygonum,  15,  34,  119,  151. 

Oregon   grape,   182.  Poppleton,  O.  O.,  152,  183,  186,  281. 

Oregon   maple,  271.  Poppy,  59,  117,  207,  208. 

Oreocarya,  182.  Populus,  22. 

Origanum,   155.  Portulaca,  15. 

Oxydendrum,  237.  Prairie   clover,  74,  208. 

Prickly  ash,   139,  209. 

Palm,  116,  183.  Prickly  pear,  56,  208,  211. 

Palmetto,  96,  183.  Prince  Edward  Island,  Honey 

Paloverde,   21.  Sources   of,  210. 
Pammel,  L.  H.,  103,  129,  181,  202,  203.     Privet,  13,  125. 

279,  284.  Propolis,  210. 


INDEX 


295 


Prosopis,  21,  115,  156. 
Primus,  21,  151,  202. 

amygdalus,  18,  58. 

armeniaca,  21,  58. 

ceracus,  58,  67. 

demissa,  48,  278. 

domestica,  58. 

pennsylvanica,  48,  279. 

persica,  58,  189. 

serotina,  278. 

virginiana,  278. 
Psidium,  116. 
Ptelea,  128. 
Pumpkin,  59,  211. 
Pycananthemum,  32. 
Pyrus,  15,  56,  150,  151,  189. 
Pysokermes  picea,  243. 

Quebec,  Honey  Sources   of,  212. 
Quercus,  58,  59,  178,  179. 

Rabbit  brush,  57,  213. 
Radish,  wild,  58,  214. 
Ragged  lady,  228. 
Ragweed,  213,  214. 
Raphanus,  58,  214. 

sativus,  58. 
Rape,  214. 
Raspberry,   8,    15,  48,   58,  66,   76,  99, 

135,  139,  151,  215,  233. 
Rattan,  13,  216. 
Rattlesnake  root,  216. 
Rattleweed,  58,  145. 
Rayment,  45,  261. 
Redberry,  50. 
Red  boy,  216. 
Redbud,  13,  22,  139,  217. 
Red  clover,  59,  135,  139,  218. 
Red  gaura,  223. 
Redroot,  176. 
Reece,  Chas.  A.,  275. 
Reseda  odorata,  59,  158. 
Retama,  222. 
Rhamnus,  50,  56,  182. 
Rhode  Island,  Honey  Sources  of,  222. 
Rhododendron,  28,  205,  206. 
Rhus,  56,  140,  151,  206,  251. 
Ribes,  54,  85. 
Ribes  mentziesii,  59. 
Richardia  scabra,  158. 
Richter,  M.  C,  31,  33,  37,  41,  43,  50, 

62,  64,  70,  71,  83,  91,   104,   109,   125, 

137,  153,  159,  160,  163,  181,  192,  213, 

229,  277,  283,  288. 
Ricinus  communis,  58,  62. 
Robinia  pseudo-acacia,  58,  146,  151. 
Rocky  Mountain  bee  plant,  56,  223. 
Rockbrush,  223. 
Root,  E.  R.,  189. 


Rosa,  224. 

californica,  59. 

laevigata,  66. 
Rose,  59,  223. 
Rosin  weed,  73. 
Royal  palm,  183. 
Roystonea,  183. 
Rubacer,  233. 

Rubus,  15,  37,  48,  150,  151,  205. 
Rudbeckia,  75. 
Russian  olive,  180. 

Sabal,   183. 

Sage,  57,  59,  225. 

Sainfoin,  117,  231. 

Salal,  182,  232. 

Salix,  15,  48,  56,  151,  282. 

discolor,  48. 

longifolia,  48. 

speciosa,   15. 
Salmon  berry,  15,  233. 
Salt  cedar,  233. 
Salvia,  57,  59,  225. 
Sambucus,  15,  60,  89. 
Sandvine,  43. 

Sanguinaria    canadensis,  40. 
Sapindus,  206,  279. 

Saskatchewan,  Honey  Sources  of,  234. 
Sassafras,  234. 
Satureia  montana,  59. 
Satureja,  281. 
Scabiosa,  206. 
Scale  insects,  179. 
Schinnus  molle,  56,  192. 
Scholl,  L.  H.,  12,  13,  31,  39,  49,  55,  63, 

73,  79,  81,  97,  104,  109,  126,  154,  162, 

163,  193. 
Scilla,  234,  235. 
Screw   bean,  21. 
Scrophularia,  58,  94. 
Scullen,  H.  A.,.63,  162,  216,  233,  236,  273. 
Sechium  edule,  66. 
Sedum,  244. 
Senecio,  55. 
Senna,  148. 
Serenoa,  183. 
Serjania  lethalis,  204. 
Sheep  laurel,  141. 
Sheppard,  W.  J.,  49,  131,  181. 
Sherman,   Franklin,  Jr.,   177,   192. 
Shittim  wood,   113. 
Sidulcea  malvaeflora,  56,  280. 
Siderocarpos,  257. 
Siebert,  J.  J.,  66. 
Silphium,  84. 

Simpson's   honey  plant,  58. 
Sisal,  117. 

Skunk  cabbage,  134,  155,  235. 
Sladen,  F.  W.  L.,  15,  27,  33,  104,  106, 


296 


INDEX 


142,  152,  181 ; 
Smartweed,  15,  135. 
Smilax,  113. 
Snakeroot,  45,  46. 
Snowberry,  48,  131,  133,  236,  272. 
Snow-on-the-mountain,  236. 
Snowvine  236. 
Soapbush,  237. 
Solidago,  49,  57,  101,  102,  103.  104,  105, 

106,  107,  108,  150. 
Sonchus,  60,  238. 
Sophora,  116. 

secundiflora,  76. 
Sorghum,  237. 
Sour    clover,   58. 
Sourwood,  100,  139,  177,  237. 
Sow  thistle,  60,  238. 
South   Carolina,  Honey   Sources   of, 

238. 
South    Dakota,    Honey    Sources    of, 

238. 
Spangler,  D.  W.,  182. 
Spanish  needle,  59,  134,  135,  148,  155, 

238. 
Sparkle-berry,  94. 
Spider  plant,  239. 
Spikeweed,  57,  240. 
Spring  beauty,  241. 
Spruce,  241. 
Spurge,  236. 
Squash,  59,  243. 
Stachys,  58,  123. 
Star  thistle,  243. 
Stickleaf,   156. 
Stinkweed,  137. 
Stonecrop,  244. 
Stork's  bill,  222. 
Strawberry,  244. 
Stringy  bark,  56,  251. 
Strong,  J.  L.  198,  273. 
Stuart,  C.  D.,  70. 
Sumac,  56,  135,  139,  151,  155,  223. 
Sunflower,  57,  74,  135,  253. 
Sweet  boy,  216. 
Sweet  clover,  8,  9,  13,  22,  56,  58,  131, 

134,  135,  139,  151,  245,  271. 
Sweet  fennel  58,  251. 
Sweet  pepperbush,  191. 
Symphoricarpos  racemosus,  48,  133. 

235,  272. 
Symplocarpos  235. 

occidentalis,  48. 

orbiculatus,  132. 

Tabacum,  260. 
Tagasaste,   261. 
Talley,  M.  B.,  66,  163. 
Tamarind,  116. 
Tamarisk,   57. 
Tamarix,  233. 


Tangier    pea,    117. 

Tansy,  15. 

Taraxacum  officinale,  48,  86,  150. 

Tarweed,  57,  254. 

Teasel,  135,  255. 

Tennessee,  Honey  Sources  of,  256 

Teucrium,  100. 

Texan  ebony,  257. 

Texas,  Honey  Sources  of,  257. 

Thimbleberry,  215,  233. 

Thistle,  Bull,  5/. 

Thistle,   Canada,  48,  61. 

Thyme,  259. 

Thymus,  259. 

Tilia  americana,  32,  57,  150. 

Tilia   europea,  33. 

Tisswood,  216. 

Ti-ti,  259. 

Tobacco,  76,  260. 

Toothache-tree,  208. 

Touch-me-not,  137. 

Tournefortia   heliotropoides,  59. 

Townsend,  E.D.,  158. 

Traveler's  joy,  71. 

Tree  alfalfa,  261. 

Tree   clover,  59,  261. 

Tree  of  heaven,  56,  265. 

Trefoil,  shrubby,  128. 

Trelease,  Wm.,  174,  201. 

Trichostema  lanceolatum  41,  57. 

Trifolium,  72,  150,  218. 

fucatum,   58. 

hybridum,  19,  58. 

incarnatum,  83. 

praetense,  59,  218. 

repens,  57,  117,  276. 
Trillium,  261. 
Tropical  lilac,  261. 
Tule  mint,  59. 

Tupelo,  7,  22,  95,  144,  147,  155,  263. 
Tulip-tree,  13,  22,  87,  99,  135,  139,  155, 

177,  261,  262. 
Turkey  mullein,  58,  265. 
Turnip,  265. 

Ulex  europaeus,  58,  109. 
Ulmus,  90. 

Umbellularia  californica,  59. 
Utah,  Honey  Sources  of,  265. 

Vaccinium,  15,  41. 

arboreum,  94. 

canadense,  41. 

corymbosum,  41. 

ovalifolium,  41,  48. 

pennsylvanicum,  41. 
Varnish  tree,   100,  265. 
Verbena,  58,  266. 
Verbesina,   84. 
Vermont,  Honey  Sources  of,  266. 


INDEX  297 

Vernonia,    136.  Wild  buckwheat    56   91. 

Veronica  andersonii.  60.  Wild  cherry,  99,  278. 

virginica,  85.  JJj  clllll\279'    7Q 

Vervain    266  Wild  cucumber,  279. 

Vervenia,  57,  58.  Wild  hollyhock    56,  280. 

Vetch,  59,  267.  Wild  parsnip,  281 

Vptrh   milk    \s9  Wild  pennyroyal,  9b,  281. 

Viburnum   prunifolium.   38.  Wilder,  J.  J.,  37   79,  80,  97,  189. 

Viria    59   267  Wiley,  W.  L.,  43. 

Vlgna  sinensis,  81.  Willow    15    56   76   87,  99,  134,  135,  139, 

Vine  maple,  268,  271.  148,  151,  155   282 

Vine  milkweed,  268.  Willow  herb,  49,  151. 

Viper's  bugloss,  45.  Winter  savory,  d9 

Virginia,  Honey  Sources  of,  268  Wisconsin,  Honey  Sources  of,  283. 

Virginia  creeper,  59,  269.  Wislizenia   refracta,  56,   137. 

Virginia   waterleaf,   269.  Wisteria,  284. 

Virgin's  bower,  59,  71.  Wolfberry,  48. 

Vitex   270.  Wood  sage,  100. 

Vitis  calif ornica,  59.  Woundwort,   123 

Vitis  vinifera,  58,  109.  Wright,  W^D.,  177. 

Wyoming,  Honey  Sources  ot,  Z»4. 

Walnut,  270.  ,  .                                _, 

Washington,  Honey  Sources  of.  271.    Xanthium  canadense    73. 

Watermelon,  58,  273.  Xanthoxylum  Clava-Hercuhs,  208 

Waterweed,  58.  Xanthoxylum  pterota,  73. 

Waterweed,  California,  273. 

Wattle,  11,  58.  Yaupon    125. 

Waxberry,  235.  Yellow  Jasmine,  284. 

Weather  and  Honey  Production,  273.  Yellow  tops,  57 

West  Virginia,  Honey  Sources  of,  273. Yellow  wood,  139,  285,  286. 

White  alder,  191.  Yerba  Buena    58,  287. 

White  brush,  276.  Yerba  santa,  57,  287. 

White  clover,  7,  8,  14,  15,  22,  57,  117,    Yucca,  56,  100,  286,  288. 

131.  134,  135.  144.  148,  150.  276 

Wild  alfalfa,  56,  277.  Zea  mays,  59,  132. 


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Practical  Queen  Rearing 

BY  FRANK  C.  PELLETT 

In  preparation  for  this  book  Mr. 
Pellett  visited  many  of  America's 
foremost  beekeepers  and  queen 
breeders,  both  north  and  south  and 
has  described  their   methods    fully. 

The  methods  of  the  older  queen- 
breeders  and  writers,  Alley,  Doo- 
little  and  others,  are  explained  with 
the  variations  which  are  the  develop- 
ment of  later  years. 
Simple  methods  of  rearing  a  few  queens  in  a  small 
apiary,  as  well  as  methods  used  for  rearing  queens  in 
wholesale  quantity,  make  the  book  valuable  alike  to  the 
ordinary  beekeeper  and  commercial  queen  breeder 
Cloth  binding,  1  05  pages,  40  illustrations,     Price  $  1 .00 

AMERICAN  HONEY  PLANTS 

BY  FRANK  C.  PELLETT 

The  first  book  in  the  English  language  on  the  subject  of  honey  plants 

Acknowledge  of  sources  of  nectar 
is  fundamental  to  the  success  of 
the  beekeeper,  as  the  difference  of 
a  mile  or  two  in  distance  often 
doubles  the  returns  from  the  apiary 
on  account  of  better  pasturage. 
This  book  is  the  result  of  years  of 
study  and  visits  to  important  honey 
producing  sections,  from  New  Eng- 
land to  California,  and  from  Canada 
to  Florida  and  Texas. 
An  authoritative  book  by  an  expert 
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Langstroth  on  the  Honeybee 


REVISED  BY  DADANT 


This  book  originally  written 
by  Rev.  L.  L.  Langstroth,  the 
inventor  of  the  movable  frame 
hive,  has  been  revised  and 
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out. It  contains  careful  and  ac- 
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mysteries  of  the  hive.  Full  and 
reliable  information  concern- 
ing the  detection  and  treatment 
of  disease,  the  sources  of  nec- 
tar and  pollen,  and  care  of  the 
apiary  thruout  the  year  are  in- 
cluded. The  best  methods  of 
producingand  marketing  large 
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First  Lessons  in  Beekeeping 

BY  C.  P.  DADANT 


FIRST  LESSONS 
IN  BEEKEEPING 


The  senior  editor  of  the  American  Bee  Journal  who 
is  the  author  of  this  book  has  spent  nearly  all  his 
life  in  a  beekeeping  atmosphere.  His  father  the  late 
Charles  Dadant,  was  an  investigator  who  became 
well  known  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  As  a 
young  man,  the  author  of  this  book  was  associated 
with  his  father  in  honey  production  and  assisted  him 
in  the  many  experiments  which  he  conducted  in  his 
efforts  to  make  beekeeping  a  practical  success. 

Contains  just  the  things  you  want  too  know,  in  a 
style  easily  understood  and  with  many  pictures  to 
explain  the  text.  You  may  safely  recommend  First 
Lessons  in  Beekeeping  to  your  friends. 

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A  Thousand  Answers  to  Beekeeping 


Q- 


Questions 

BY  DR.  C.  C.  MILLER 

For  over  25  years  Doctor  Miller  has  answered  questions  for 
beginners  and  veteran  alike  through  the  columns  of  the 
American  Bee  Journal.  More  than  10,000  of  these  questions 
have  been  answered  in  this  manner.  These 
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them  included  in  this  new  book,  edited  by 
Maurice  G.  Dadant. 

Alphabetically  arranged  by  subject,  this 
book  will  clear  up  many  problems  not 
touched  by  other  bee  books. 

The  texts  all  tell  a  connected  story  of  bee 
life  and  the  principals  of  honey  production, 
while  this  takes  up  singly  the  many  ques- 
tions which  perplex  the  beekeeper  in  every 
day  practice  about  his  bees. 

Should  be  included  in  every  list  of  bee  books. 

Attractive  cloth  cover,  276  pages  illustrated.     Price  $1.25. 

OUTAPIARIES 

BY  M.  G.  DADANT 

A  clear  and  concise  explanation  of  the  requirements  for  proper 
placing,  arranging  and  managing  of  outapiaries. 
Too  many  beekeepers  expand  into  outapiary  beekeeping 
without  fundamental  knowlenge  of  its  requirements.  The 
result  is  that  apiaries  are  often  located  improperly  and  have 
to  be  moved  after  the  errors  are  discovered  by  costly  ex- 
perience. 

Special  chapters  are  devoted  to  apiary  sites,  basis  of  placing 
the  apiary,  systems  of  management,  moving,  autos  and  trucks, 
honey  houses  and  equipment,  and  treatment  of  apiary  during 
different  seasons  of  the  year,  with  special  apparatus  used  by 
large  beekeepers. 

This  book  is  especially  valuable  to  the  beginning  outapiarist, 
but  will  contain  many  items  of  value  to  the  experienced  out- 
yard  man. 

The  book  is  cloth  bound,  has  125  pages  and  50  ilustrations, 
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Scientific  Queen  Rearing 

BY  G.  M.  DOOLITTLE 

An  old  work  that  has  a  had  a  big  sale.  Gives  Doo- 
little's  methods  of  queen  rearing  by  artificial  grafting. 
We  advise  "  Practical  Queen  Rearing  n  as  preferable, 
but  the  student  or  commercial  breeder  who  desires  to 
practice  cell  grafting  will  find  this  work  interesting. 

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AMERICAN  BEE  JOURNAL 

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Every  phase  of  beekeeping  is  covered 

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